Socio-Economic Conditions in J&K under Dogra Rule (1846–1947)

The history of the Dogra dynasty in Jammu and Kashmir, spanning a century from 1846 to 1947, represents the most critical period in the formation of the modern political and geographical identity of the region. For aspirants preparing for the Jammu and Kashmir Services Selection Board (JKSSB) and other administrative examinations, the socio-economic dynamics of this era are not merely historical footnotes but essential frameworks for understanding the regional transition from a medieval feudal system to a nascent modern state. The creation of the princely state of Jammu and Kashmir through the Treaty of Amritsar in 1846 integrated diverse geographies, including the plains of Jammu, the valley of Kashmir, and the high-altitude frontiers of Ladakh and Gilgit, into a single administrative unit.   

The Genesis of the Dogra State and Political Consolidation

The political landscape of mid-19th century India was defined by the waning power of the Sikh Empire and the expansionist policies of the British East India Company. The First Anglo-Sikh War concluded with the Treaty of Lahore on March 9, 1846, which saw the Sikhs ceding territory between the Beas and Indus rivers to the British. However, the British, seeking a buffer state against potential Russian advancement and preferring a stable local ally, transferred the territory of Kashmir to Maharaja Gulab Singh through the Treaty of Amritsar on March 16, 1846. This transaction, involving the payment of 75 lakh Nanakshahi (or Chilki) rupees, established Gulab Singh as the independent sovereign of the second-largest princely state in British India.   

The integration of these regions was an exercise in military and administrative pragmatism. Ladakh, which had transitioned from indigenous Namgyal rule to the Dogra domain following the campaigns of General Zorawar Singh between 1834 and 1842, became the “Ladakh Wazarat”. This newly formed state was a complex tapestry of cultures, languages, and religions, requiring a centralized authority to manage its far-flung boundaries.   

The early Dogra administration aimed to bring order to a region that had suffered under the harsh and often predatory governance of Afghan and Sikh governors. However, the state initially adopted an absolutist character. Maharaja Gulab Singh, perceiving himself as the purchaser of the land, declared himself the sole proprietor of all forests, mountains, and cultivated fields. This declaration fundamentally altered the socio-economic status of the peasantry, who were divested of their hereditary proprietary rights and reduced to the status of tenants-at-will.   

Agrarian Economy and the Revenue Collection Mechanism

Agriculture was the primary occupation for over 85% of the population, yet the sector remained in a state of perdition for much of the 19th century due to a lack of planned revenue systems. The state’s economic structure was inherently feudal, with the Maharaja at the apex of a hierarchy that included Jagirdars (land grantees), Muafidars (holders of tax-free land for religious purposes), and Chakdars (land revenue agents).   

The Feudal Hierarchy and Intermediaries

The Jagirdari system was a hallmark of Dogra economic policy. The state granted villages to members of the royal family or high-ranking officials in lieu of salaries or as rewards for service. These Jagirdars were almost autonomous within their estates, often collecting up to 75% of the produce from the farmers. This left the actual tillers with barely enough to survive, forcing them to subsist on substandard diets of vegetables and wild fruits.   

The revenue department was historically described as one of the most corrupt branches of the administration. Officials from the Patwari (village accountant) to the Tehsildar collaborated to extract the maximum possible surplus from the producers. Revenue was primarily collected in kind, particularly in the form of Shali (unhusked rice), which allowed officials to manipulate measurements and weights to favor the state treasury while leaving the peasants in debt.   

The Land Revenue Settlement of Sir Walter Lawrence

A structural transformation of the agrarian economy began during the reign of Maharaja Pratap Singh with the intervention of the British Residency. The appointment of Andrew Wingate in 1887 as the first Land Settlement Officer paved the way for Sir Walter Lawrence, who served as the Settlement Commissioner from 1889 to 1894. Lawrence’s work, documented in his seminal book The Valley of Kashmir, provided a graphic account of the miseries faced by the people and introduced reforms that stabilized the rural economy.   

Despite these reforms, a regional disparity persisted. While Lawrence’s settlement brought relief to the Kashmir Valley, the Jammu region saw different land tenure developments where proprietary rights were granted to certain agricultural classes earlier. The impact of Lawrence’s settlement cannot be overstated; it provided the first sense of security to the Kashmiri peasant, leading to increased productivity and a doubling of state revenue during Pratap Singh’s reign.   

The Institution of Begar (Forced Labor)

Perhaps the most oppressive feature of the socio-economic life during the Dogra period was the system of Begar, or forced-cum-unpaid labor. While the practice of forced labor was not an innovation of the 19th century—having roots in ancient times and surviving through the Mughal, Afghan, and Sikh periods—its institutionalization during the Dogra era reached unprecedented levels of severity.   

Types and Mechanisms of Begar

The state had the authority to impress any villager into service for the benefit of the administration or the royal family. The primary forms of Begar included:   

• Gilgit Begar: The most dreaded form, where thousands of peasants were forced to carry military supplies and food to the frontier outpost of Gilgit, a distance of 300 miles from Srinagar over harsh mountainous terrain.   
• Construction Labor: Villagers were compelled to work on roads, canals, and embankments without remuneration.   
• Official Services: Carrying the baggage of visiting officials or providing labor during royal hunting expeditions and river processions.   

The human cost of the Gilgit Begar was staggering. Many coolies perished due to frostbite, starvation, or cholera on the dangerous mountain passes. Historical accounts mention that unburied corpses along the Gilgit road were a common sight, and the word “Gilgit” became synonymous with a death sentence for many rural families.   

Economic Disruptions and Eventual Abolition

The Begar system was economically disastrous because the calls for labor often coincided with the peak agricultural seasons. When the male population was taken away for months to serve as porters, the fields remained uncultivated, leading to famines and a decrease in the state’s revenue. To escape this “constant terror,” many peasants either bribed officials to gain exemption or migrated to neighboring states like Punjab.   

Sir Walter Lawrence strongly advocated for the abolition of Begar in all its forms. While Maharaja Pratap Singh partially abolished the practice in 1891, it was formally abolished in 1920. However, the Glancy Commission in 1932 noted that government orders for its abolition were sometimes treated as “dead letters” in remote areas, and Maharaja Hari Singh had to issue further stringent orders to ensure that laborers were adequately paid.   

Infrastructure and Modernization of Connectivity

The four-decade reign of Maharaja Pratap Singh (1885–1925) is characterized by historians as the “Dawn of Modernism” in Jammu and Kashmir. This era saw the transition of the state from medieval isolation to a connected society through revolutionary changes in transport and communication.   

The Great Mountain Roads

Before the construction of modern cart roads, there was not a single wheeled conveyance in the state; travel was restricted to pack animals or human porters. The Dogra administration undertook two monumental engineering projects:   

1. Jhelum Valley Cart Road (1889): Connecting Kohala to Baramulla and later to Srinagar, this road linked the valley with Rawalpindi. It was hailed as one of the most wonderful mountain roads in the world and served as the primary trade link with the rest of India until 1947.   
2. Banihal Cart Road (1922): This road connected Jammu with Srinagar across the Banihal Pass, finally providing an internal link between the two capitals of the state.   

These roads revolutionized the daily lives of the people, allowing for the introduction of motor cars and hand-carts by the end of Pratap Singh’s reign. The state also established a railway link via the Jammu-Sialkot line in 1890, further integrating the region into the commercial network of British India.   

Irrigation, Power, and Flood Control

To support the agrarian economy and mitigate natural disasters, the state invested heavily in hydraulic engineering. The Ranbir Canal in Jammu, completed in 1911 at a cost of over 35 lakh rupees, became the most important irrigation artery in the province. In the valley, a wide spill channel was constructed in 1904 to divert the floodwaters of the Jhelum away from Srinagar.   

The state also achieved a landmark in power generation with the establishment of the Mohra Hydro-Electric Project in 1907. Located in the Baramulla district, it was one of the earliest such projects in Asia. The electricity generated was used for lighting Srinagar, powering industrial units, and dredging the river to prevent floods.   

Trade, Commerce, and the Silk Route Legacy

Jammu and Kashmir occupied a strategic position on the ancient Silk Road, acting as a transit emporium for trade between the Indian subcontinent and Central Asia. The Ladakh region, particularly the town of Leh, served as the principal meeting point for merchants from Tibet, Yarkand (Chinese Turkestan), Russia, and the Punjab.   

The Leh-Yarkand Trade Network

The trade routes passing through Ladakh were valued for their safety from political turmoil and robberies. The Treaty of 1870 between the British and the Maharaja established the “Treaty High Road,” which reduced transit duties to zero on goods passing through the state to foreign territory.   

The Pashmina trade was the economic lifeblood of the high-altitude frontier. Raw wool from the Tibetan plateau was brought to Leh, where it was taxed and then transported to Srinagar to be woven into the world-famous Kashmiri shawls. The high demand for these shawls among the Russian aristocracy in Moscow and St. Petersburg made the Leh-Yarkand route a lucrative commercial artery until the Chinese closed the route in the mid-20th century.   

The Srinagar Silk Factory

One of the most significant industrial achievements of the Dogra era was the establishment of the Silk Factory in Srinagar in 1897. Under the leadership of Sir Thomas Wardle and later Baba Nilambar Mukherji, the industry was organized on scientific lines. To ensure a premium product, high-quality silkworm seeds were imported from Italy and France.   

By 1921, the factory in Srinagar was one of the largest in the world, employing over 5,000 workers and supporting more than 50,000 rural families who raised silkworms in their homes. The industry provided a much-needed boost to the rural economy and helped the standard of living for many families who were otherwise dependent on subsistence farming.   

Social Reforms and the “Age of Reformation”

The reign of Maharaja Hari Singh (1925–1947) is remembered as a period of significant social and legal reform. Unlike his predecessors, Hari Singh was educated in the Western progressive tradition at Mayo College in Ajmer and the Imperial Cadet Corps in Dehradun. At his coronation, he famously declared that “as a ruler, I have no religion; all religions are mine and my religion is justice”.   

Educational Advancement and Healthcare

Hari Singh implemented the recommendations of the Sharp Committee to expand education across the state. Key developments included:   

• Compulsory Education: Primary education was made free and compulsory in several municipal areas by 1930.   
• Female Education: The state promoted women’s education through the establishment of separate girls’ schools and the implementation of laws against child marriage.   
• Technical Education: Institutions like the Amar Singh Technical Institute in Srinagar were founded to provide vocational training.   

In healthcare, the state moved beyond traditional Ayurvedic and Unani systems (Vaid and Hakims) to establish modern Allopathic hospitals. The foundation of the Shri Maharaja Gulab Singh (SMGS) Hospital in Jammu was laid in 1940, and it opened in 1943 as a state-of-the-art facility. Similarly, the Shri Maharaja Hari Singh (SMHS) Hospital in Srinagar was established to provide tertiary care to the valley’s population. Vaccination acts and village sanitation acts were also introduced to combat frequent cholera and smallpox epidemics.   

The “State Subject” Definition (1927)

A critical legal development for JKSSB aspirants to note is the enactment of the State Subject Law on April 20, 1927. This law was born out of a movement by the local Kashmiri Pandit and Dogra communities who feared that outsiders (primarily from Punjab) would dominate government jobs and acquire land in the state. The law restricted the right to own land and hold government employment to bona fide “State Subjects,” a concept that defined the state’s special identity until the reorganization in 2019.   

Political Awakening and the 1931 Movement

The socio-economic hardships of the 19th and early 20th centuries—including high taxation, Begar, and the lack of jobs for the educated—led to a growing political consciousness, particularly among the majority Muslim population. This culminated in the events of July 13, 1931, where a protest outside the Central Jail in Srinagar resulted in the death of 21 people in police firing.   

This event is considered a watershed in the state’s history, leading to the appointment of the Glancy Commission. The commission’s findings corroborated the grievances of the people regarding religious disabilities, the lack of government jobs for Muslims, and the persistence of Begar. Its recommendations led to the creation of the Praja Sabha (the state’s first legislature) and the restoration of several religious properties to the Muslim community.   

This period also saw the emergence of the National Conference under Sheikh Mohammad Abdullah, who advocated for a “New Kashmir” program that promised radical land reforms and the abolition of landlordism—a plan that would fundamentally reshape the state’s socio-economic fabric after 1947.   

The Accession and the End of the Dogra Era

The century-long Dogra rule came to an end amidst the turmoil of the partition of British India in 1947. Maharaja Hari Singh initially signed a “Standstill Agreement” with Pakistan but faced a tribal invasion supported by the Pakistani army in October 1947. To repel the invasion and protect his people, the Maharaja requested military aid from India.   

On October 26, 1947, Maharaja Hari Singh signed the Instrument of Accession, legally merging the princely state with the Dominion of India. Following this, the Maharaja appointed his son, Yuvraj Karan Singh, as the Regent in 1949. By 1952, the hereditary monarchy was abolished, and Karan Singh became the Sadr-i-Riyasat (President) of the state.   

Legacy and Current Affairs for Aspirants (2024–2025)

Understanding the Dogra era is vital for contemporary context, as many of today’s headlines are rooted in this history.

The Abrogation of Article 370

On August 5, 2019, the Government of India revoked Article 370 and Article 35A, which had been the constitutional manifestations of the special status and state subject laws originating in the Dogra era. The state was reorganized into the Union Territories of Jammu & Kashmir and Ladakh. This reorganization has led to new laws regarding land ownership and residency, replacing the 1927 State Subject certificates with Domicile certificates.   

Commemorative Events and Public Holidays

A major current affairs point for JKSSB aspirants is the declaration of Maharaja Hari Singh’s birth anniversary (September 23) as a public holiday in J&K. In September 2025, the 130th birth anniversary was observed across the Jammu region with renewed calls for the restoration of statehood to the Union Territory. Leaders from various political parties, including the BJP and Congress, participated in rallies to honor the Maharaja’s role in the accession and his progressive social reforms.   

Heritage Preservation Projects (2025 Updates)

The Union Territory administration is currently executing several projects to preserve the architecture of the Dogra era:

• Mubarak Mandi Complex: Ongoing restoration of the royal residence in Jammu, with over 59 crore rupees sanctioned for seven sub-projects including collection galleries and experiential spaces.   
• Fort Restoration: Work is in progress at the Bahu Fort, Samba Fort, and the palace of General Zorawar Singh in Reasi.   
• Digital Archives: The Department of Archives, Archaeology, and Museums is digitizing ancient manuscripts and creates 3D mapping of heritage sites for long-term preservation.   

Relevant Books for Exam Preparation

For aspirants looking to deepen their conceptual clarity, the following sources are highly recommended:

• The Valley of Kashmir by Sir Walter Lawrence (Primary source for 19th-century socio-economics).   
• History of the Dogras by Sat Prakash Suri (Details the lineage and modernizing measures).   
• A History of Dogra Rule in Kashmir (1846-1947) by Dr. R. K. Parmu (Exhaustive analysis of the 101-year rule).   
• Rajdarshani by Ganesh Das (One of the earliest sources for the genealogy of Jammu rulers).   

Conclusion

The socio-economic conditions during the Dogra rule reflect a century of struggle, transition, and eventual modernization. While the early years were marked by the hardships of an absolute feudal monarchy, the later years saw a visionary drive toward infrastructure, industry, and social justice. For the JKSSB aspirant, the timeline of this era—from the Treaty of Amritsar in 1846 to the Instrument of Accession in 1947—is more than a list of dates; it is the story of how Jammu and Kashmir emerged as a modern geopolitical entity. The legacy of these rulers, from the land settlements of Walter Lawrence to the state subject laws of 1927, continues to be a central pillar of the region’s historical and political identity.

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Sahil Digra

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