Historical Evolution of Jammu & Kashmir

The historical narrative of Jammu and Kashmir is a sophisticated tapestry of mythological origins, imperial expansions, and transformative legislative shifts that have shaped the socio-political identity of the northernmost part of the Indian subcontinent. For candidates preparing for the Jammu and Kashmir Services Selection Board (JKSSB) and other state-level competitive examinations, a comprehensive grasp of this timeline is not merely an academic requirement but a prerequisite for understanding the region’s complex administrative machinery and current legal status. 

The transition from an ancient hydraulic civilization to a unified princely state under the Dogra dynasty, and finally to a modern Union Territory, offers a unique case study in constitutional evolution and political history.   

Mythological Foundations and the Pre-Historic Landscape

The origins of the Kashmir Valley are steeped in geological and mythological paradigms that suggest a transition from a prehistoric aquatic environment to a terrestrial settlement. According to the Nilmata Purana, the oldest extant text on the region’s rituals and history, the valley was once a vast lake known as Satisar. The narrative posits that this lake was inhabited by a demon named Jalodbhava, who terrorized the surrounding inhabitants. The sage Kashyapa, responding to the pleas of the people, is said to have invoked divine intervention to drain the lake by cutting a gap in the mountains at the Baramulla (Varahmulla) fault. Etymologically, the name “Kashmir” finds its roots in the Sanskrit words Ka meaning water and Shimeera meaning to desiccate, signifying a land reclaimed from water.   

Archaeological evidence corroborates the antiquity of human habitation in the region, particularly from the Neolithic period. The site of Burzahom, located near Srinagar, remains a cornerstone of prehistoric studies in the valley. Findings at Burzahom reveal a unique culture of pit-dwellings, polished stone tools, and distinct burial practices where dogs were buried with their masters, a feature not commonly found in contemporary Indus Valley sites. These early communities were eventually succeeded by the Nagas, the original indigenous inhabitants of the valley, who are associated with the worship of natural springs known as ‘Nags’.   

The Era of Ancient Empires and the Rise of Buddhism

The systematic historical record of Kashmir begins with the Mauryan Empire in the 3rd century BC. Emperor Ashoka is credited with the foundation of the original city of Srinagar, then known as Pandrethan or Purandisthan. During his reign, Buddhism was introduced to the valley, flourishing as a major theological and cultural force. This influence reached its zenith during the Kushan Empire, specifically under the reign of Kanishka in the 1st century AD. Kanishka’s decision to convene the Fourth Buddhist Council in Kashmir solidified the region’s status as a global center for Buddhist scholarship, leading to the formalization of the Mahayana school of Buddhism. From this intellectual hub, Kashmiri missionaries traveled along the Silk Road to propagate the faith in China, Tibet, and Central Asia.   

The post-Kushan period saw the valley witnessing the invasion of the White Huns or Ephthalites. The most prominent ruler of this era was Mihirakula, whose reign in the 6th century AD is often portrayed as tyrannical. Despite his initially hostile stance toward Buddhism, Mihirakula eventually patronized Shaivism, marking the beginning of a religious shift that would see the resurgence of Brahmanical traditions in the valley.   

The Imperial Zenith: Karkotas and Utpalas

The 7th and 8th centuries marked an era of unprecedented political expansion under the Karkota dynasty, founded by Durlabhavardhana. This period is characterized by the transformation of Kashmir into a formidable imperial power in Northern India.   

The Reign of Lalitaditya Muktapida

Lalitaditya Muktapida (reigned c. 724–760 AD) is widely regarded as the most illustrious ruler of ancient Kashmir. Often termed the “Samudragupta of Kashmir” in competitive exam literature, his military campaigns were vast, reaching as far as Kannauj in the plains of India and the Transoxiana regions of Central Asia. Lalitaditya’s defeat of Yashovarman of Kannauj and his successful containment of Arab incursions in the west demonstrated his strategic brilliance.   

Architecturally, Lalitaditya’s legacy is headlined by the Martand Sun Temple. Built on the Mattan Karewa near Anantnag, the temple is a masterpiece of early medieval architecture, featuring a unique blend of Gandharan, Gupta, and Roman influences. The temple complex was designed with a central shrine surrounded by 84 smaller shrines, a number sacred in Hindu cosmogony. He also established a new capital at Parihaspura, which served as a testament to his vision of an urban, culturally rich empire.   

The Utpala Dynasty and Agricultural Reforms

Following the decline of the Karkotas, the Utpala dynasty ascended to power in 855 AD under Avantivarman. Unlike his predecessors who focused on military expansion, Avantivarman prioritized domestic stability and economic rejuvenation. The most significant achievement of his reign was the engineering work of his minister, Suyya. Through sophisticated dredging of the Jhelum River and the creation of systematic irrigation channels, Suyya effectively managed the recurring floods and reclaimed large tracts of land for agriculture. The town of Sopore, originally named Suyyapur, was founded in his honor. Avantivarman’s capital, Avantipura, remains a site of immense archaeological interest today.   

The subsequent centuries saw the rule of various dynasties, including the Loharas. This period is notable for the reign of Queen Didda, who exercised significant power as a regent and later as a monarch until 1003 AD. It was during the reign of Jayasimha of the Lohara dynasty that the scholar Kalhana composed the Rajatarangini in 1148–1149 AD. This work, meaning “The River of Kings,” consists of eight books or Tarangas and serves as the most authentic chronological source for the history of ancient and early medieval Kashmir.   

The Advent of the Sultanate and the Golden Age of Budshah

The transition from Hindu rule to the Sultanate was a gradual process influenced by internal political instability and the spiritual influence of Sufi saints from Central Asia. The last Hindu ruler of medieval Kashmir was Udyan Dev, whose queen, Kota Rani, acted as the de facto ruler. Following her death in 1339, the Shah Miri dynasty was established by Shah Mir, who took the title Sultan Shamas-ud-din.   

Sultan Zain-ul-Abidin (1420–1470 AD)

The Sultanate period reached its zenith under Sultan Zain-ul-Abidin, affectionately known as “Budshah” (The Great King). His fifty-year reign is often compared to that of the Mughal Emperor Akbar due to his progressive policies of religious tolerance and administrative modernization. Budshah inherited a kingdom scarred by the persecution of his predecessor, Sultan Sikandar, and he worked tirelessly to restore communal harmony. He abolished the Jizya tax on non-Muslims, allowed the reconstruction of temples, and invited back those who had fled the valley during previous regimes.   

Economic development under Budshah was transformative. He is credited with introducing several handicrafts that have become the hallmarks of the Kashmiri economy, including pashmina shawl weaving, silk production, paper-machie, and wood carving. He established the first paper-making and bookbinding industries in the region, bringing skilled artisans from Samarkand. His public works included the construction of the Zaina Kadal bridge—the first major wooden bridge over the Jhelum in Srinagar—and the creation of artificial islands like Zaina Lank in the Wular Lake and Sona Lank in the Dal Lake. He also implemented a rigorous administrative system that utilized a sophisticated intelligence network to check corruption among officials.   

The Chak Dynasty and Resistance

The Shah Miri dynasty eventually gave way to the Chak dynasty, founded by Ghazi Shah Chak. The Chaks were notable for their fierce resistance to Mughal expansion, successfully thwarting several early attempts by the Mughals to annex the valley. However, internal factionalism and political intrigue eventually weakened their hold, leading to the annexation of Kashmir by the Mughal Emperor Akbar in 1586.   

Mughal, Afghan, and Sikh Rule: A Century of Transition

Mughal rule (1586–1752) integrated Kashmir into the larger administrative framework of the Mughal Empire. Akbar recognized the strategic and aesthetic value of the valley, constructing the outer wall of the Hari Parbat Fort and planning a new capital called Nagar-Magar. His successors, Jahangir and Shah Jahan, were deeply enamored with the valley’s natural beauty, commissioning several iconic gardens such as Shalimar Bagh, Nishat Bagh, and Chashma Shahi. This period also saw the visit of European travelers like Francois Bernier, who provided some of the first Western accounts of the region’s geography and culture.   

The decline of Mughal power allowed the Afghans, under Ahmad Shah Abdali, to seize control of Kashmir in 1752. The era of Afghan rule (1752–1819) is frequently cited in JKSSB previous year questions as the “Darkest Period” in the history of Kashmir due to the extreme brutality of the governors, excessive taxation, and widespread looting.   

In 1819, the Sikh Empire under Maharaja Ranjit Singh conquered Kashmir, ending Afghan rule. Sikh rule (1819–1846) brought some administrative stability but remained largely characterized by a military-centric governance model. The period saw the valley governed by Subedars appointed from the Lahore Darbar, with the Nanak Shahi currency serving as the legal tender.   

The Dogra Dynasty and the Creation of the Modern State

The contemporary geopolitical entity of Jammu and Kashmir was consolidated in the 19th century under the Dogra dynasty. The Dogras, a Rajput clan from the Jammu region, had risen to prominence in the service of the Sikh Empire. Gulab Singh, a trusted general of Maharaja Ranjit Singh, was granted the principality of Jammu in 1820.   

The Treaty of Amritsar (1846)

The foundational event in the history of the modern state was the signing of the Treaty of Amritsar on March 16, 1846. Following the defeat of the Sikh Empire in the First Anglo-Sikh War, the British East India Company acquired the territory between the Beas and Indus rivers as a war indemnity under the Treaty of Lahore. Subsequently, the British transferred the sovereignty of these hilly regions, including the Kashmir Valley, to Gulab Singh in exchange for 75 lakh Nanak Shahi rupees. This agreement, often referred to in political discourse as the “Sale Deed of Kashmir,” created the Princely State of Jammu and Kashmir, bringing Jammu, Kashmir, and Ladakh under a single administrative head for the first time.   

The Lineage of Dogra Rulers

The Dogra dynasty ruled for precisely 101 years, from 1846 to 1947, during which the state underwent significant administrative and social transformation.   

1. Maharaja Gulab Singh (1846–1857): Focused on the consolidation of territory. His general, Zorawar Singh, played a pivotal role in the annexation of Ladakh and Baltistan, extending the state’s frontiers to the Himalayas.   
2. Maharaja Ranbir Singh (1857–1885): Known for his administrative and judicial reforms. He introduced the Ranbir Penal Code (RPC), which served as the region’s criminal law until 2019. He was also a great patron of arts and Sanskrit learning, establishing the Raghunath Temple in Jammu.   
3. Maharaja Pratap Singh (1885–1925): Saw the introduction of modern infrastructure, including the Jhelum Valley Road and the Banihal Cart Road, which improved connectivity with British India.   
4. Maharaja Hari Singh (1925–1947): The final ruling monarch, who implemented various progressive reforms. He prohibited child marriage through the Infant Marriage Prevention Regulation (1928), made primary education compulsory for boys, and opened temples to the Dalit community.   

The 1947 Accession and the Era of Special Status

The transition of the princely state into the Union of India was marked by the geopolitical upheaval of the 1947 Partition. Maharaja Hari Singh initially sought to maintain an independent status for the state. However, a large-scale tribal invasion supported by Pakistan in October 1947 forced the Maharaja to seek military assistance from the Government of India. On October 26, 1947, Maharaja Hari Singh signed the Instrument of Accession, making Jammu and Kashmir an integral part of India.   

The subsequent relationship between the state and the Union was defined by Article 370 of the Indian Constitution, which granted Jammu and Kashmir a special autonomous status, its own constitution, and a separate flag. The first Prime Minister of the state, Sheikh Mohammad Abdullah, played a crucial role in framing the Naya Kashmir manifesto, which outlined a vision for a modern, democratic society. The state’s own constitution came into effect on January 26, 1957, formally concluding the hereditary rule of the Dogras and integrating the state’s governance within the broader Indian federal structure.   

The Jammu and Kashmir Reorganisation Act, 2019

On August 5, 2019, the Government of India revoked the special status granted under Article 370, a move that fundamentally altered the region’s constitutional landscape. This was implemented through the Jammu and Kashmir Reorganisation Act, 2019, which reconstituted the state into two separate Union Territories: Jammu & Kashmir and Ladakh.   

Structural Overview of the 2019 Act

The Act consists of 103 sections, 14 parts, and 5 schedules, and it officially came into force on October 31, 2019.   

• Bifurcation: The erstwhile state was split into the UT of Jammu and Kashmir (with a Legislative Assembly) and the UT of Ladakh (without a Legislative Assembly).   
• Administration: The administration of the UT of J&K follows Article 239A (similar to the Puducherry model), governed by a Lieutenant Governor appointed by the President.   
• Law Reforms: The J&K Legislative Council was abolished. 106 central laws were extended to the region, while 153 state laws were repealed.   
• Representation: The UT of J&K was allocated 5 seats in the Lok Sabha, while Ladakh received 1 seat. The initial number of seats in the Legislative Assembly was set at 107 (later revised), including 24 seats reserved for Pakistan-occupied Kashmir (PoK).   

The Delimitation Exercise of 2022

Following the reorganization, a Delimitation Commission led by Justice (Retd) Ranjana Prakash Desai was tasked with redrawing the boundaries of assembly and parliamentary constituencies in the Union Territory. The commission’s final report, submitted in May 2022, introduced critical changes aimed at ensuring proportional representation.   

The commission increased the total number of assembly seats from 83 to 90 (excluding PoK seats). In a historic first, 9 seats were reserved for Scheduled Tribes (ST), while 7 seats were reserved for Scheduled Castes (SC). The redrawing of constituencies considered factors such as population density, geographical accessibility, and the proximity to international borders. For example, the commission allowed for a deviation in population counts to account for the difficult terrain in hilly districts like Kathua compared to flat areas like Srinagar.   

Contemporary Administrative Developments (2024–2026)

The years 2024 and 2025 have been marked by the restoration of the democratic process and the implementation of significant legislative changes under the newly elected government.

The 2024 Assembly Elections and Government Formation

The first assembly elections post-reorganisation were held in late 2024, seeing a robust voter turnout across the Union Territory. The Jammu and Kashmir National Conference (JKNC) emerged as the single largest party with 42 seats, forming a coalition government with the Indian National Congress (INC) and others.   

Omar Abdullah assumed office as the first Chief Minister of the Union Territory on October 16, 2024. The leadership structure also includes Surinder Kumar Choudhary as Deputy Chief Minister and Abdul Rahim Rather as the Speaker of the Legislative Assembly. The 13th Legislative Assembly of Jammu and Kashmir consists of 90 elected members, with an additional provision for 5 nominated members by the Lieutenant Governor.   

Rationalisation of the Reservation Matrix (2025)

A major administrative development in late 2025 was the Cabinet’s approval of a new reservation policy. The Omar Abdullah government moved to rationalise the quotas to increase the share of “Open Merit” candidates, which had been significantly reduced following center-led amendments in early 2024.   

The Cabinet Sub-Committee recommended reducing the Economically Weaker Sections (EWS) quota from 10% to 3% and the Resident of Backward Areas (RBA) quota from 10% to 7%. These adjustments are projected to increase the Open Merit share in direct recruitment to approximately 40%, rising to 50% under vertical reservation protocols. This move followed widespread protests by students and aspirants who argued that the previous system, which pushed total reservations to over 70%, was detrimental to merit-based selections.   

Land Rights and Tenure Legislation

The administration of land remains a sensitive political issue. In 2022, the J&K Land Grant Rules replaced the 1960 rules, ending the automatic renewal of leases for prime properties and introducing a fresh online auction system. In response, the Legislative Assembly in late 2025 debated several private members’ bills:   

• J&K Land Grants (Restoration and Protection) Bill, 2025: Aimed at restoring the 1960 Act and protecting existing leaseholders from eviction.   
• J&K Land Rights and Regularisation Bill, 2025: Proposed the regularization of land holdings occupied for over 30 years to provide tenure security for residents.   

Recent Legislative Amendments

In August 2025, the Union Government introduced the Jammu and Kashmir Reorganisation (Amendment) Bill in the Lok Sabha. This legislation seeks to provide for the automatic removal of a Chief Minister or Minister if they are arrested and detained for a serious criminal offence (punishable with 5 years or more) for a period exceeding 30 consecutive days. This amendment aims to ensure the highest standards of accountability in governance within the Union Territory.   

Economic and Infrastructure Milestones (2024–2025)

The Economic Survey 2024–25 paints a picture of a region experiencing steady economic growth and infrastructure modernization. The real GSDP of the Union Territory is projected to grow at 7.06%, with a nominal GSDP estimated at ₹2.65 lakh crore.   

• Sectoral Performance: The tertiary (services) sector continues to dominate the economy, contributing 61.7%, while the primary sector (agriculture) contributes 20%.   
• Employment Trends: The unemployment rate has recorded a dip to 6.1%, indicating a resurgence in economic opportunities.   
• Major Projects: Infrastructure projects like the Jammu Semi Ring Road are nearing completion (98% as of early 2025), and the Udhampur-Srinagar-Baramulla Rail Link (USBRL) is in its final phase of execution. Connectivity has also been boosted by the Delhi-Amritsar-Katra Expressway, which is expected to reduce travel time between Delhi and Katra to 6 hours.   
• Digital Governance: The administration has achieved significant milestones in digital service delivery, with the launch of the RTI portal for 62 departments and the implementation of the “Mission Mode Governance” model.   

Conclusion and Strategic Insights for Exam Preparation

The historical timeline of Jammu and Kashmir demonstrates a remarkable continuity of cultural and administrative evolution, from the hydraulic engineering of the Utpalas to the digital transformation of the 21st century. For JKSSB aspirants, several key themes emerge as high-yield topics. First, the specific reforms of Sultan Zain-ul-Abidin and Maharaja Hari Singh provide a frequent source of questions regarding social and economic modernization. Second, the technical details of the Treaty of Amritsar (1846) and the Instrument of Accession (1947) are foundational for understanding the region’s historical and legal legitimacy. Third, the intricacies of the J&K Reorganisation Act, 2019, including its sections and schedules, are essential for questions on the current administrative structure.

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Sahil Digra

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