Early History of Jammu and Kashmir

The historical evolution of Jammu and Kashmir is not merely a regional chronicle but a pivotal chapter in the broader narrative of South Asian civilization. For candidates preparing for the Jammu and Kashmir Services Selection Board (JKSSB) examinations, the study of the history of jammu and kashmir provides an essential foundation for understanding the complex socio-political and cultural identity of the Union Territory. This period, spanning from the obscure depths of prehistoric times to the sophisticated social structures of the Vedic era, is documented through a multifaceted array of sources, including archaeological excavations by the Archaeological Survey of India (ASI), classical Sanskrit literature like the Nilamata Purana, and the rigorous historical methodology introduced by Kalhana in the Rajatarangini. The region offers one of the most authentic and continuous records of human habitation in the Indian subcontinent, with sites such as Burzahom and Gufkral providing a detailed lens into the life of early food producers between 3000 BCE and 1000 BCE.

Geological Genesis and the Lacustrine Environment

The prehistoric landscape of Jammu and Kashmir was dictated by significant geological shifts that occurred during the Pleistocene epoch. The Kashmir Valley is situated upon an ancient lake bed, characterized by unique elevated terraces known as “Karewas.” These clay formations, located at an average elevation of 1,800 metres above sea level, served as the primary habitation sites for early humans due to their stability and proximity to water sources like the Jhelum (Vitasta) River and Dal Lake. Geological analysis indicates that the subduction of the Indian tectonic plate beneath the Eurasian Plate—a process active for approximately 50 million years—not only formed the Himalayas but also created the enclosed basin that would eventually hold the prehistoric Satisar lake.

Table 1: Geological Profile and Settlement Significance

The transition from a lacustrine environment to an inhabitable valley is a central theme in both geological and literary traditions. The Nilamata Purana describes how the sage Kashyapa drained the Satisar lake to make the land fit for human settlement, an account that mirrors modern geological findings of the eventual drainage of the Pleistocene lake through the Baramulla gorge.This synthesis of myth and geology provides a profound insight into how early inhabitants rationalized their environmental surroundings, leading to the name Kashyap Mar or Kashyap Pura in honor of the sage.

The Neolithic Heartland: Advancements at Burzahom

The Neolithic period in Jammu and Kashmir represents the first documented transition from a nomadic hunting-gathering lifestyle to a settled, food-producing economy. The site of Burzahom, located northwest of Srinagar, remains the northernmost excavated Neolithic site in India and serves as the benchmark for the “Northern Neolithic Culture”. Excavated extensively between 1960 and 1971 by the ASI under T.N. Khazanchi, Burzahom reveals a continuous cultural sequence that allows historians to trace the evolution of architecture, tool-making, and ritual life.

The earliest settlers at Burzahom, identified in Period I (Aceramic Neolithic), devised ingenious solutions to the harsh Himalayan climate. They constructed subterranean dwelling pits, some reaching depths of 3.95 metres, which were circular or oval in shape. These pits were wider at the base than the opening, providing natural insulation against the freezing winters. Post-holes discovered around the rims of these pits suggest that timber structures and birch covers were used as roofs. The presence of stone hearths near these dwellings indicates a mastery over fire, used for both warmth and communal cooking.

Period II at Burzahom marks a significant architectural shift as inhabitants transitioned to constructing mud-brick structures on level ground. This transition suggests a stabilization of the environment and an increase in social complexity, as permanent above-ground housing requires more sophisticated community coordination. The material culture of this era is rich with polished stone tools—celts, adzes, and chisels—alongside an unprecedented variety of bone tools. These include needles with eyes, harpoons for fishing in the nearby Jhelum, and daggers for hunting. The discovery of wheat, barley, and lentil seeds confirms that agriculture was firmly established by this time, while the presence of lentils suggests early trade or movement between Kashmir and Central Asia.

Table 2: Chronology of Burzahom Cultural Sequences

The burial practices at Burzahom offer a unique window into the spiritual and ritualistic beliefs of the Neolithic period. Human burials were often found within the habitation areas, with the deceased placed in “crouched” or flexed positions. A remarkable feature is the burial of domestic animals, particularly wild dogs and antlers, alongside humans, indicating a deep ritualistic bond between the hunter and the hunted or the domesticator and the domesticated. Furthermore, the discovery of a human skull with eleven trepanned holes provides evidence of early surgical or ritualistic medical practices, suggesting that the Neolithic people of Kashmir possessed a rudimentary understanding of physiology and healthcare.

Gufkral: The Potter’s Perspective and the Aceramic Phase

Located in the Pulwama district near the town of Tral, Gufkral (literally “the cave of the potter”) provides a critical complementary narrative to the findings at Burzahom. Excavated by A.K. Sharma in 1981, Gufkral is instrumental in proving the existence of an “Aceramic” Neolithic phase in Kashmir, where humans were already practicing agriculture and animal domestication before the invention or adoption of pottery. This phase, dated between 2787 and 2350 BCE, challenges previous assumptions about the sequence of Neolithic development in South Asia.

At Gufkral, the evidence of animal domestication is particularly strong. Excavations revealed the bones of cattle, sheep, goats, and dogs, as well as those of wild animals like the Himalayan Ibex and the Red Deer (Hangul), indicating a mixed economy that balanced hunting with early pastoralism. The architectural remains mirror the Burzahom model, transitioning from pit dwellings to ground-level mud houses. The site is situated on a large upper Karewa mound, which reaches a maximum height of 35 metres, offering a strategic vantage point for early communities.

The significance of Gufkral for JKSSB aspirants lies in its status as a site that bridges the gap between the nomadic past and the settled future. The discovery of grinding stones and clay ovens within the pit dwellings highlights the domestication of the hearth, a fundamental unit of social organization. The site also yielded personal ornaments, including beads made of carnelian, agate, and paste, which suggest that the Neolithic inhabitants were part of a wider trade network that extended toward the Indus Valley and Central Asia.

Table 3: Comparative Analysis of Burzahom and Gufkral

Regional Neolithic Proliferation

The Neolithic culture was not confined to a few isolated sites but was spread throughout the length and breadth of the Kashmir Valley. Explorations conducted in the 1980s by the ASI and Kashmir University revealed nearly four dozen locations with Neolithic activities, suggesting a highly developed and widespread food-producing culture. Sites such as Begagund, Hariparigom, Olchibag, Pampur, Panzgom, and Sombur have yielded handmade pottery, stone tools, and grain impressions, reinforcing the narrative of a settled agrarian society.

At Panzgom, surface finds have identified a culture contemporary with Burzahom and Gufkral, characterized by handmade grey and red ware pottery and lithic tools like blades and scrapers. The widespread presence of mat impressions on the bases of pottery across these sites indicates a common technological tradition of using mats during the pottery-making process. This regional consistency points toward a shared “Northern Neolithic” identity that was well-adapted to the valley’s fertile but challenging environment.

The Megalithic Transition and Socio-Religious Complexity

As the Neolithic era gave way to the Megalithic period (approximately 1000 BCE), the social landscape of Jammu and Kashmir underwent a significant transformation. This period is most prominently marked by the erection of “menhirs”—massive, unhewn stones that served as commemorative or religious monuments. At Burzahom, these stones represent a shift in collective effort, as the movement and placement of such massive objects required organized community labor.

The Megalithic period also saw advancements in ceramic technology, with the introduction of gritty red ware pottery manufactured on the potter’s wheel. This transition from handmade to wheel-made pottery signifies a maturation of craftsmanship and likely a greater specialization of labor within the society. Metal objects also began to appear more frequently, including copper arrowheads and bangles, marking the end of the Stone Age and the beginning of the metal-using phases. The continuity of stone and bone tools alongside metal suggests a period of gradual technological overlap, where traditional methods were slowly replaced by more efficient materials.

Tribal Ethnography: The Nagas, Pishachas, and Khasas

The early historical identity of the region is deeply intertwined with its tribal ethnography, as described in ancient literature. The Nilamata Purana and the Rajatarangini provide detailed accounts of the diverse groups that inhabited the region before the arrival of the Indo-Aryans and during their early settlement phases.

The Nagas: Aboriginal Guardians of the Springs

The Nagas are consistently identified as the original inhabitants of the Kashmir Valley. Far from being mythical serpent-beings, the Nagas were an aboriginal tribe whose culture was centered around the worship of water bodies and springs. In Kashmir, every spring or “Nag” was believed to have a tutelary deity. The Naga King Nila is a central figure in Kashmiri tradition, credited with providing the cultural and religious laws that allowed the valley to be inhabited by humans (the descendants of Manu). The dominance of the Naga culture is evident in the survival of Naga place-names across the valley, such as Anantnag and Verinag.

The Pishachas and the Seasonal Compromise

The Pishachas were another early tribe, possibly originating from Central Asia, who shared the valley with the Nagas. According to theNilamata Purana, the Pishachas were a fierce group that occupied the valley for six months during the winter, while the humans emigrated to warmer regions. This legend likely reflects a historical pattern of seasonal transhumance, where different groups used the valley’s resources at different times of the year. The eventual permanent settlement of humans was achieved through a social contract mediated by the Nagas, allowing the descendants of Manu to live in the valley year-round after adopting certain local rites.

The Khasas: Warriors of the Pir Panjal

The Khasas were a powerful and ferocious tribe that occupied the south and west valleys of the Pir Panjal range, including modern-day Poonch and Rajouri. In the Rajatarangini, Kalhana describes them as a fierce mountainous people who often acted as a buffer or a threat to the rulers of the Kashmir Valley. Over time, the Khasas were assimilated into the Brahmanical social structure, becoming the progenitors of various Rajput clans in the Jammu region. Their legacy continues to influence the social and cultural structure of Jammu today.

Table 4: Key Tribes of Early Jammu and Kashmir

The Vedic Horizon and the Sapta Sindhu

The transition from prehistory to the Vedic period in Jammu and Kashmir is marked by the region’s integration into the “Sapta Sindhu”—the Land of the Seven Rivers. The Rigveda, the earliest of the Vedic texts (1500–1000 BCE), mentions several rivers that flow through or border modern-day Jammu and Kashmir, establishing the region as part of the core Aryan geography.

Vedic Hydronyms of the Region

For JKSSB aspirants, identifying the Vedic names of J&K’s rivers is a high-priority task, as these hydronyms are frequently tested in exams. The identification of these rivers allows historians to map the eastward migration of Vedic culture from the Hindukush toward the Gangetic plains.

• Vitasta (Jhelum): Known as the Vyath in Kashmiri, the Vitasta is central to the identity of the valley. Vedic tradition holds that the river was created when Lord Shiva struck the ground with his trident to purify the land.
• Asikni (Chenab): This river flows through the Jammu region and is prominently mentioned in the Rigveda as one of the major waterways of the Sapta Sindhu.
• Parushni / Iravati (Ravi): The Ravi River was the site of the legendary Dasharajnya Yuddha (Battle of the Ten Kings), a pivotal event in Vedic history where King Sudas of the Bharata tribe defeated a coalition of ten tribes.
• Sindhu (Indus): The primary river of the region, the Indus acted as the western boundary of the Vedic heartland.

The Battle of the Ten Kings on the banks of the Parushni (Ravi) is particularly significant as it marks the consolidation of the Bharata tribe’s power, which would eventually give its name to “Bharatvarsha” (India). This battle highlights that the Jammu region was a site of major political and military activity during the early Vedic age.

The Early History of Jammu: From Agnigir to Jambu Lochan

While the history of the Kashmir Valley is well-documented through archaeological sites like Burzahom, the history of the Jammu region is preserved through a combination of archaeological findings and local literary traditions like the Rajadarshini (Persian Chronicle that details the genealogy and history of the Dogra rulers of Jammu, written by Ganesh Das Badhra and later translated to englsih by Sukhdev singh Charak).

The Legend of Raja Jambu Lochan

According to popular belief, the city of Jammu was founded by Raja Jambu Lochan around 1500 BCE. The legend states that during a hunting expedition, the Raja witnessed a goat and a tiger drinking water from the same spot at the Tawi River. Interpreting this as a sign of peace and harmony, he decided to found the town of Jambupura (modern Jammu) on that very spot. His brother, Bahu Lochan, is credited with building the Bahu Fort on the left bank of the Tawi, which remains one of the oldest and most significant landmarks in the region, believed to have been originally constructed 3,000 years ago.

The Agnigir and Pandava Empires

Local chronicles like the Rajadarshini record the existence of early empires in the Jammu region, such as the Agnigir Empire, which was reportedly established by a descendant of Lord Rama of Ayodhya named Agnigir around 900 years before the start of the Kaliyuga. The region was also significantly affected by the Mahabharata War. King Shal of Sialkot, the maternal uncle of the Pandavas, reportedly defeated local rulers to gain control over Jammu.After his death at Kurukshetra, Jammu was governed by Babru Vahan, the son of Arjuna, who is credited with founding the town of Babaur.

Archaeological evidence from sites like Ambaran (Pambaran) near Akhnoor supports the long history of the Jammu region. Ambaran is noted for its Buddhist Stupa and is one of the few places in the world where the relics of Buddha have been found. This indicates that Jammu was an important center of Buddhism between the 1st and 7th century BCE, bridging the gap between the Vedic and the later historical periods.

The Dawn of Recorded History: The Gonanda Dynasty

The transition from the legendary to the recorded history of Kashmir is spearheaded by the Gonanda Dynasty, as detailed in Kalhana’s Rajatarangini.

Gonanda I and the Mahabharata Connection

Gonanda I is identified as the first king of Kashmir, ruling around 3120 BCE. He was a relative of Jarasandha, the king of Magadha, and was killed by Lord Krishna’s brother, Balarama, during a war. His son, Damodara I, attempted to avenge his father but was also killed by Krishna. In a gesture of high sanctity toward the land of Kashmir, Krishna then crowned Damodara’s pregnant widow, Yasovati, as the ruler. Yasovati is historically significant as the first known female sovereign of Kashmir, and her reign established the principle of legitimacy that Kalhana would emphasize throughout his chronicle.

The Lost Kings and Cultural Foundations

Kalhana mentions a period of “Lost Kings”—thirty-five rulers whose names were forgotten over time but who were part of the early Gonandiya lineage. During this era, the foundations of Kashmiri Shaivism and Naga rites were solidified. Notable rulers who followed include Lava, who founded the city of Lolora (Lolab), and Surendra, who is recognized as the first native Buddhist ruler of Kashmir. This demonstrates that Buddhism and Shaivism co-existed in the region from a very early period, long before the Mauryan expansion.

Table 5: Legendary and Early Historical Rulers

Interactions with the West: Alexander and Abisares

The early history of Jammu and Kashmir was not isolated but was connected to global movements. In 326 BCE, the region came into contact with the armies of Alexander the Great.

The Submission of Abisares

Abisares (or Abhisara), the king of the mountainous region between the Jhelum and the Chenab (modern-day Poonch, Rajouri, and parts of Kashmir), played a delicate diplomatic game during the Greek invasion. Initially, he intended to support King Porus in the Battle of the Hydaspes, but after Alexander’s victory, he chose the path of submission. He sent treasure and elephants to Alexander, who, impressed by the gesture, allowed Abisares to retain his kingdom and even added the territory of Urasa (Hazara) to his control. This interaction highlights the strategic importance of the Jammu and Kashmir hills as a gateway and a refuge during major continental conflicts.

The Mauryan Integration and the Rise of Buddhism

The 3rd century BCE marked a turning point for the region as it was incorporated into the Mauryan Empire under Ashoka the Great.

Ashoka’s Legacy in Kashmir

Emperor Ashoka’s influence on Kashmir was transformative. He is credited with founding the city of Srinagari (the modern city of Srinagar) and the city of Pandrethan (Puranadhisthana). Ashoka introduced Buddhism to the valley by sending the scholar Majjhantika to preach. However, Ashoka was also a patron of the local Shaivite traditions, constructing the Shiva temple at Vijeshwari (modern Bijbehara). His son, Jalauka, succeeded him in Kashmir and is remembered as a powerful ruler who cleared the valley of Mlechchhas (foreign invaders) and restored peace.

The Kushan Era: A Golden Age of Learning

Following the Mauryas, the Kushan Empire, particularly under Kanishka, Hushka, and Jushka, elevated Kashmir to a primary center of global learning and religious activity.

The Fourth Buddhist Council

Emperor Kanishka hosted the Fourth Buddhist Council in Kashmir (likely at Kundalvan/Harwan or Kanispur), a seminal event that saw the participation of scholars like Vasumitra, Ashvagosha, and Nagarjuna. This council was instrumental in compiling the Mahavibhasha, a massive commentary on Buddhist principles that would influence the spread of Buddhism to China and Tibet. The Kushan rulers founded several cities—Kanishkapur (Kanispur), Huskapura (Ushkur), and Juskapura (Zukur)—which remained significant centers of trade and culture for centuries.

Recent Archaeological and Environmental Developments (2024–2026)

For JKSSB aspirants, staying updated with current affairs and recent archaeological findings is essential for scoring in the General Awareness section.

The Zehanpora Discovery (2025)

In late 2025, a landmark discovery was made in Zehanpora village, Baramulla. Archaeologists from the University of Kashmir and the J&K Department of Archives, Archaeology & Museums unearthed an extensive 2,000-year-old Buddhist complex. This site revealed stupas and monastic buildings dating back to the Kushan period, providing a tangible link to the capital of Huvishkapura. Prime Minister Narendra Modi hailed this discovery as a “proud moment” that redefining the ancient past of the valley.

Protection of Geological Heritage (2026)

In January 2026, the J&K Forest Department and the GSI granted protected status to three major fossil sites in the Anantnag district. Sites at Halsidar and Saskhudan Kapran have revealed fossils from the Jurassic and Permian periods, some dating back 260 million years. These findings underscore the region’s status as a “nationally recognized geo-heritage asset”.

Table 6: Recent Factual Developments for JKSSB

Conclusion and Strategic Implications

The early history of Jammu and Kashmir, from the subterranean pits of Burzahom to the monastic cells of Zehanpora, reflects a society that has consistently mastered its environment and engaged with the wider world. For the JKSSB aspirant, this history is not a collection of static dates but a fluid narrative of human resilience and intellectual advancement. The transition from the Neolithic to the Vedic and Historical periods demonstrates that J&K was never an isolated mountain enclave but a vibrant crossroad of Central Asian, Vedic, and Hellenistic cultures.

The synthesis of archaeological findings with literary sources like the Rajatarangini and Nilamata Purana provides a comprehensive historical framework. Understanding the mechanisms of these early cultures—their burial rites, their tool-making, their tribal social contracts, and their dynastic foundations—is the key to mastering the syllabus of the J&K Services Selection Board. As new discoveries like Zehanpora continue to emerge, they reinforce the region’s standing as a world-class archaeological treasure and a vital part of India’s ancient legacy.

About The Author

Sahil Digra

See author's posts