Demography – Census, Its Features and Functions for JKSSB 2026

The study of human populations, professionally categorized as demography, serves as the fundamental scientific basis for effective governance, economic forecasting, and socio-political planning. The term itself finds its etymological roots in the Greek words ‘demos’, signifying population, and ‘graphy’, which pertains to the act of describing or drawing. In contemporary scholarship, demography is recognized as the scientific study of human populations, encompassing their size, composition, distribution, density, and growth, while concurrently analyzing the underlying causes and socioeconomic consequences of variations in these factors. 

This discipline is broadly bifurcated into two specialized fields: formal demography and social demography. Formal demography is primarily concerned with the quantitative measurement and mathematical analysis of population components—such as births, deaths, and migration—to forecast growth and structural shifts. Conversely, social demography, or population studies, investigates the intricate interrelationships between population patterns and diverse economic, cultural, and biological processes. For the state, the primary instrument for operationalizing this science is the census, which acts as the largest single source of statistical information regarding the characteristics of the people within a nation.

Theoretical Foundations of Population Dynamics

Before delving into the administrative complexities of the Indian census, it is essential to establish the theoretical frameworks that govern population growth. These theories provide the conceptual lens through which demographic data is interpreted.

The Malthusian Perspective on Population and Subsistence

Thomas Malthus, a seminal figure in early demography, postulated a theory that highlights a inherent tension between human reproductive capacity and the capacity for food production. Malthus argued that human populations tend to grow at a geometric rate (e.g., 1, 2, 4, 8, 16), whereas the means of human subsistence, specifically agricultural output, only increase at an arithmetic rate (e.g., 1, 2, 3, 4, 5). This divergence leads to an inevitable state of overpopulation unless checked. 

Malthus identified two types of checks: “positive checks,” such as famines, epidemics, and wars that increase the death rate, and “preventive checks,” such as delayed marriage and moral restraint that decrease the birth rate. While modern technological advancements in agriculture have largely mitigated the arithmetic limitations Malthus feared, his theory remains a critical reference point for understanding resource pressure in developing economies.

The Five Stages of Demographic Transition

The Demographic Transition Theory (DTT) explains the long-term shift from high birth and death rates to low birth and death rates as a society progresses from a traditional agrarian and illiterate state to a modern industrial and urbanized one. This evolution is typically categorized into five distinct stages, each reflecting a specific level of economic development.

In the first stage, high fertility is a response to high mortality caused by frequent epidemics and precarious food supplies, resulting in low life expectancy. The second stage is the most critical for developing nations; it occurs when improvements in sanitation, nutrition, and medical technology drastically reduce death rates while birth rates remain stubbornly high, leading to a massive net addition to the population. India’s demographic history reflects this, particularly during the mid-20th century. By the third stage, urbanization and improved female education lead to a significant decline in fertility. The fourth stage represents developed societies where the population stabilizes at low levels. A proposed fifth stage accounts for post-industrial societies, such as Japan or Italy, where fertility falls well below the replacement level of 2.1, leading to an aging population and potential economic stagnation.

The Demographic Dividend and Working-Age Structures

A vital concept for policy dialogue in India is the“demographic window” or “demographic dividend.” This refers to a period in a nation’s evolution when the proportion of the population in the working-age group (typically 15–64) is significantly larger than the dependent groups (children under 15 and the elderly over 65). The United Nations Population Department defines this window as the period when children under 15 fall below 30 per cent of the total population and the elderly over 65 remain below 15 per cent. India is currently in this unique window, presenting an opportunity to leverage its youth for economic growth through investments in health, education, and employment. However, this is accompanied by the long-term challenge of a “rapidly ageing population,” which is projected to comprise 20 per cent of the Indian population by 2050.

Historical and Global Context

To understand the evolution of the census, it is important to look at both the ancient roots in India and the milestones of modern global census-taking.

A. Ancient and Medieval Indian References

The practice of collecting population and economic data in India is not a modern invention; it has been a tool of governance for over two millennia.

• Kautilya’s Arthashastra (3rd Century BC): * During the Mauryan Empire, the Arthashastra detailed the necessity of a census for taxation and state policy.
  • It prescribed the collection of data regarding the number of households, their occupations, livestock, and the classification of people into different social and economic categories.
• Ain-i-Akbari (16th Century AD): * During the reign of Mughal Emperor Akbar, the Ain-i-Akbari (authored by Abu’l-Fazl) recorded comprehensive administrative and statistical data.
  • It included detailed information on population, industry, wealth, and agricultural characteristics, serving as a medieval precursor to the modern gazetteer.

B. Global Firsts and Modern Milestones

The modern, systematic approach to counting every individual in a territory emerged in the 18th century.

• First Modern Census (Iceland/Sweden):
  • Iceland (1703): Often cited as the first country to conduct a modern, nominal census where every person was recorded by name.
  • Sweden (1749): Conducted the first comprehensive and continuous population register.
• First Decennial Census (USA, 1790):
  • The United States was the first country to mandate a census in its Constitution and conduct it every ten years (decennially), starting in 1790.
• British Census (1801): * The first systematic census in Great Britain was conducted in 1801, providing a model that was later adapted for the Indian subcontinent during the colonial era.

Essential Features and Functions of the Population Census

A census is not merely a headcount but a comprehensive procedural acquisition and recording of information about every member of a population. To ensure international comparability and statistical rigor, the United Nations (UN) prescribes several essential features for any national census.

The Four Pillars of UN Census Principles

The United Nations Statistical Commission has issued revisions to the “Principles and Recommendations for Population and Housing Censuses,” with Revision 4 being the most recent standard for the 2025–2035 round. These guidelines emphasize four indispensable characteristics:

1. Individual Enumeration: This requirement ensures that each individual and each living quarter is enumerated separately, allowing the characteristics of each person to be recorded and cross-classified.
2. Universality within a Defined Territory: The census must cover a precisely defined territory—usually the entire country—including every person residing within its scope without exception.
3. Simultaneity: All data must refer to the same well-defined point in time, known as the reference date. This ensures that the snapshot of the population remains accurate despite subsequent births, deaths, or migrations.
4. Defined Periodicity: To appraise the past and estimate the future, censuses must be taken at regular intervals, typically every ten years.

Strategic Functions for Governance

The information gathered through the census serves several critical functions for the state and various stakeholders. Primarily, census data provides the sampling frame for other specialized surveys conducted by the National Sample Survey Office (NSSO). Furthermore, it is essential for the delimitation of electoral constituencies, ensuring fair political representation based on population size. For ministries, “Census-as-a-service” (CaaS) provides data in clean, machine-readable formats for evidence-based policy-making in sectors like food security, housing, and infrastructure. The data also plays a role in monitoring the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), particularly regarding gender equality, literacy, and urbanization.

The Legislative Architecture: Census Act of 1948

In India, the census is a Union subject mandated by the Constitution under Article 246, listed as entry 69 in the Seventh Schedule. The legal foundation for its execution is the Census Act of 1948, which predates the Constitution and provides the necessary backing to the census organization.

Powers and Appointments

The Act empowers the Central Government to notify the intention of taking a census in any part of India whenever it considers it necessary. Under Section 4, the government appoints a Census Commissioner to supervise the operation nationally and Directors of Census Operations for each state. A critical administrative feature is that these census officers are deemed “public servants” under the Indian Penal Code. Furthermore, the Act grants the government the power to requisition premises, vehicles, vessels, or animals for census work, with provisions for compensation to the owners.

Obligations and Penalties for Compliance

The success of such a massive administrative exercise relies on the legal obligation of citizens to cooperate. Section 8(2) of the Act stipulates that every person is legally bound to answer all questions to the best of their knowledge or belief. There is, however, a customary proviso: individuals are not bound to state the name of any female member of the household, and women are not bound to state the names of their husbands if forbidden by local custom. Non-compliance—whether through refusal to answer, providing false information, or obstructing an officer—is a punishable offense with penalties ranging from fines to imprisonment.

The Provision of Confidentiality

One of the most important provisions of the Census Act is Section 15, which guarantees the absolute secrecy of individual records. This section mandates that census information cannot be used as evidence in any civil or criminal proceeding, nor is it open to inspection. The data can only be used for statistical purposes where the individual’s identity is submerged into larger aggregates. This protection is vital for maintaining public trust and ensuring that respondents provide accurate personal information without fear of repercussions from the tax, law enforcement, or other administrative bodies.

Historical Chronology of the Indian Census

The history of the census in India is a reflection of the evolving administrative priorities of the colonial and post-colonial state.

Early Milestones and the Great Divide

Although regional counts occurred earlier, the first non-synchronous census was conducted in 1872 during the tenure of Viceroy Lord Mayo. This was followed by the first synchronous and truly modern census in 1881, conducted under Viceroy Lord Ripon, with W.C. Plowden serving as thefirst Census Commissioner. Since 1881, the census has been conducted every ten years without interruption until the 2021 postponement.

The census of 1921 holds a unique place in demographic history, known as the “Year of the Great Divide”. It was the only census period where India’s population showed a decline rather than an increase, with a decadal growth rate of -0.31 per cent. This negative growth was caused by the catastrophic impact of famines and the Spanish Flu pandemic, combined with rudimentary health services and poor literacy.

The Post-Independence Era

Following independence,the 1951 census was the first conducted under the new Census Act of 1948 and the first of the Indian Republic. It recorded a population of approximately 361 million, with a literacy rate of only 18 per cent and a life expectancy of 32 years.M.W.M. Yeatts was initially appointed to lead this census but died in 1948; the exercise was ultimately completed under the leadership of R.A. Gopalaswami, the first Indian Registrar General and Census Commissioner.

The 2011 census marked the 15th national census since 1872 and the7th since independence. It was conducted in two phases: House Listing and Housing Census, followed by Population Enumeration. This census was significant for several reasons, including the first-ever counting of the transgender population (totaling 490,000) and the collection of biometric data.

Statistical Profile: National Census 2011

The data from the 2011 census remains the current official baseline for all demographic calculations in India until the results of the next census are published.

Population Size and Density

As per the final reports, the population of India reached 1,210.85 million (approximately 1.21 billion), representing a decadal growth of 17.64 per cent from 2001. The population density stood at 382 persons per square kilometer. Uttar Pradesh remained the most populous state with 199.8 million people (16.5 per cent of the total), while Sikkim was the least populous.

Sex Ratio and Child Sex Ratio

The overall sex ratio in India showed a positive trend, increasing by 7 points from 933 in 2001 to 943 in 2011. Kerala recorded the highest sex ratio at 1,084, while the lowest among states was in Haryana (879) and Punjab (895), though some Union Territories like Daman and Diu had even lower ratios (618).

However, the “Child Sex Ratio” (0–6 years) presented a cause for concern, declining from 927 in 2001 to 919 in 2011. This decline highlights deep-rooted gender biases and the illegal practice of sex-selective abortion, prompting the government to launch initiatives like ‘Beti Bachao Beti Padhao’.

Literacy and Education

The national literacy rate saw a significant increase of 9.21 percentage points, rising from 64.83 per cent in 2001 to 74.04 per cent in 2011.

• Male Literacy: 82.14 per cent.
• Female Literacy: 65.46 per cent.
• Top Literacy States: Kerala (94 per cent), Lakshadweep (91.85 per cent), and Mizoram (91.33 per cent).

Regional Focus: Demography of Jammu and Kashmir

For aspirants of the Jammu and Kashmir Services Selection Board (JKSSB), understanding the regional nuances of J&K’s demographic profile is critical. The state has a unique census history marked by interruptions and specific challenges.

Historical Context of Census in J&K

Jammu and Kashmir is the only state in India that has missed the census twice post-independence: in 1951 and 1991, due to political instability and militancy. In 1951, while the rest of India was being enumerated, J&K’s figures had to be interpolated from 1941 and 1961 data. Similarly, in 1991, the census was canceled just a week before its start due to the field situation, and figures for that year were based on projections by the Standing Committee of Experts.

Profile as per Census 2011

In 2011, the population of J&K was recorded as 12,541,302, accounting for 1.04 per cent of India’s total population. The decadal growth rate was 23.64 per cent, significantly higher than the national average.

• Literacy Rate: 67.16 per cent (Male: 76.75 per cent; Female: 56.43 per cent). This represents a substantial improvement from the 55.52 per cent literacy recorded in 2001.
• Sex Ratio: 889 females per 1000 males, which is well below the national average of 943.
• Population Density: 124 persons per square kilometer, placing J&K as a sparsely populated region compared to the national density of 382.

District-Wise Rankings and Indicators

A detailed analysis of the 22 districts (at the time of 2011) reveals significant regional disparities.

Key Observations for MCQs:

• Most Populous District: Jammu.
• Least Populous District: Leh.
• Highest Literacy: Jammu (83.45 per cent), followed by Samba.
• Lowest Literacy: Ramban (54.27 per cent).
• Best Sex Ratio: Shared by Kulgam and Shopian (951).
• Worst Sex Ratio: Leh (690), largely due to the high presence of male military and paramilitary forces.
• Highest Density: Ganderbal (1,148 per sq km) and Bandipora.
• Highest Growth Rate: Anantnag (38.58 per cent) and Ganderbal.

The Crisis of Child Sex Ratio in J&K

The 2011 census revealed a sharp decline in the Child Sex Ratio (0–6 years) in J&K, which dropped to 862—well below the national 914. This was a decrease of 79 points from the 2001 census, the highest decline recorded among all Indian states. Alarmingly, the four districts that had a child sex ratio of over 1000 in 2001 (Kupwara, Anantnag, Pulwama, and Budgam) all fell to below 850 in 2011.

Institutional Hierarchy and Leadership

The Office of the Registrar General and Census Commissioner (ORGI), established in 1949, functions under the Ministry of Home Affairs. The administrative structure is hierarchical, spanning from the center to the village level.

Key Personnel and Roles

The Registrar General of India (RGI) is a high-ranking civil servant, usually of the rank of Additional Secretary to the Government of India. This office is also responsible for the implementation of the Registration of Births and Deaths Act, 1969.

• Current RGI & Census Commissioner: Mritunjay Kumar Narayan (IAS, 1995 batch, UP cadre). His tenure was extended in 2024 until August 2026 to lead the upcoming digital census.
• Census Commissioner for 2011: C. Chandramouli.
• First Indian RGI (Post-1949): R.A. Gopalaswami.
• Census Commissioner of 1881: W.C. Plowden.

The State and District Hierarchy

While the Census Act is a central legislation, its execution relies on state hierarchies.

• State Level: Each State/UT has a Directorate of Census Operations.
• District Level: The District Collector or Deputy Commissioner acts as the Principal Census Officer.
• Sub-District Level: Sub-Divisional Officers or Tehsildars act as Charge Officers.
• Field Level: Enumerators and Supervisors, primarily school teachers, conduct the actual data collection.

The Future: Census of India 2027

The next decennial census, which was delayed by the pandemic, is now planned as India’s first-ever digital census, set to be conducted in 2026–2027 with a budget of Rs. 11,718.24 crore.

Innovations and Digital Transformation

The 2027 census represents a paradigm shift in data collection methodology, moving away from paper schedules to real-time electronic capturing.

1. Mobile Applications: Data will be collected using a dedicated mobile app available on both Android and iOS platforms.
2. Self-Enumeration: Citizens will have the option to self-enumerate by logging into a portal using their mobile and Aadhaar numbers, reducing the burden on field staff and potentially improving data accuracy.
3. Real-Time Monitoring: The Census Management & Monitoring System (CMMS) portal will allow administrators to track progress and quality in real-time.
4. Houselisting Block (HLB) Creator: A web map application will be used by Charge Officers to digitally demarcate enumeration blocks.

The Inclusion of Caste Enumeration

A major policy decision for the 2027 census is the inclusion of caste enumeration. While the 2011 census included a separate Socio-Economic and Caste Census (SECC), the 2027 exercise will integrate caste data into the main Population Enumeration phase for the first time since 1931. This decision aims to provide a more accurate demographic picture for affirmative action and welfare planning.

Timeline and Phasing

The census will be conducted in two phases, with special provisions for snow-bound and remote regions.

• Phase I (Houselisting and Housing Census): April to September 2026. This phase gathers data on housing conditions, amenities, and assets.
• Phase II (Population Enumeration): February 2027. This phase collects detailed individual demographic data.
• Regional Variations: For the UT of Ladakh and snow-bound areas of Jammu & Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh, and Uttarakhand, the population enumeration will commence earlier, in September 2026.

Demographic Indicators: Definitions and Formulas

Understanding these metrics is crucial for analyzing population health and economic stability.

1. Dependency Ratio

• Definition: A measure of the portion of a population which is composed of dependents (people who are too young or too old to work) compared to the “productive” or working-age population.
• Formula:
  Dependency Ratio = [ (Population 0–14) + (Population 65+) / (Population 15–64) ] × 100

2. Infant Mortality Rate (IMR)

• Definition: The number of deaths of children under one year of age per 1,000 live births in a given year. It is a key indicator of the overall quality of a country’s healthcare system.
• Formula:
  IMR = (Number of deaths of children < 1 year / Total number of live births) × 1,000

3. Maternal Mortality Ratio (MMR)

• Definition: The number of women who die from pregnancy-related causes while pregnant or within 42 days of termination of pregnancy, per 100,000 live births.
• Note: This is the only major demographic indicator that uses a 100,000 multiplier instead of 1,000.
• Formula:
  MMR = (Number of maternal deaths / Total number of live births) × 100,000

4. Crude Birth Rate (CBR)

• Definition: The total number of live births in a particular year per 1,000 people in the population at the mid-point of that year. It is called “crude” because it does not take into account the age or sex composition of the population.
• Formula:
  CBR = (Total Live Births / Total Mid-year Population) × 1,000

5. Crude Death Rate (CDR)

• Definition: The total number of deaths in a particular year per 1,000 people in the population at the mid-point of that year.
• Formula:
  CDR = (Total Deaths / Total Mid-year Population) × 1,000

Analytical Summary and Strategic Implications

The census of India is far more than a statistical exercise; it is a vital organ of the state that informs every aspect of public policy, from the allocation of financial resources by the Finance Commission to the identification of beneficiaries for social welfare schemes. For JKSSB aspirants, the importance of this topic lies in its overlap with geography, polity, and economics.

A nuanced understanding of demography requires recognizing that population growth is a temporary phenomenon linked to development stages. As India moves from the “population explosion” of the late 20th century (Stage 2/3) toward a more stable demographic structure (Stage 4), the focus must shift from merely controlling numbers to improving the quality of human capital. The 2011 data for Jammu and Kashmir, showing a higher growth rate than the national average alongside a critical decline in the child sex ratio, underscores regional challenges that require localized policy interventions.

The transition to a digital census in 2027 marks a significant step toward “Minimum Government, Maximum Governance.” By leveraging technology for faster data dissemination through visualization tools and CaaS, the government aims to bridge the gap between data collection and policy implementation. For the upcoming exams, staying updated on these administrative changes, historical milestones like 1921, and specific J&K district rankings remains the most effective strategy for mastering this segment of the syllabus.

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Sahil Digra

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