Cultural and Religious Developments in Medieval Kashmir

The historical landscape of medieval Kashmir serves as a profound case study in the evolution of a composite culture, often referred to as Kashmiriyat. For candidates preparing for the Jammu and Kashmir Services Selection Board (JKSSB) examinations, the medieval period (roughly 14th to 18th century) is a cornerstone of the General Knowledge with special reference to J&K syllabus. This era was defined by a transition from the ancient Hindu-Buddhist polities to the Islamic Sultanates and eventually the Mughal Empire, creating a unique synthesis of Persian, Central Asian, and indigenous Sanskrit traditions.

The Political Disintegration and the Mongol Catalyst

The medieval era in Kashmir did not begin in a vacuum; it was precipitated by the internal decay of the Lohara dynasty. By the early 14th century, the administration of King Suha Deva (1301–1320 CE) was marked by deep-seated courtly divisions, systemic corruption, and a lack of centralized military control. This fragility made the valley a prime target for external aggression, which arrived in 1320 CE in the form of the Mongol chieftain Dulucha.   

The invasion by Dulucha (also known as Zulchu) was a watershed moment. His army, consisting of approximately 60,000 horsemen, unleashed a wave of destruction that fundamentally altered the demographic and political structure of the region. As Dulucha looted and burned villages, Suha Deva fled to Kishtwar, an act of abandonment that delegitimized the existing ruling class in the eyes of the suffering populace. The resulting power vacuum allowed for the rise of three outsiders who would shape the next several centuries: Rinchana (a Ladakhi prince), Lankar Chak (a Dard from Gilgit), and Shah Mir (a noble from Swat).   

The Reign of Rinchana and the First Muslim Ruler

Rinchana seized the throne after the Mongol departure by eliminating the remaining local resistance, including the Prime Minister Ramachandra. To stabilize his rule, he sought a religious identity that could unify his subjects. While he initially approached the Shaivite clergy, he was rejected due to his foreign origin. His subsequent encounter with the Sufi saint Sayyid Sharif-ud-Din, popularly known as Bulbul Shah, led to his conversion to Islam. Adopting the name Sultan Sadr-ud-Din, he became the first Muslim ruler of Kashmir in 1320 CE. This conversion was not merely a personal choice but a strategic move that introduced Islamic influence into the Kashmiri royalty, laying the groundwork for the future Sultanate.   

The Foundation of the Shah Mir Dynasty: 1339–1555 CE

The definitive shift to the Sultanate era occurred with the rise of Shah Mir. After a brief restoration of the Lohara line under Udayanadeva and the effective regency of Kota Rani, Shah Mir consolidated his influence among the nobility and the military. In 1339 CE, after defeating Kota Rani’s supporters and establishing his stronghold in Srinagar, he ascended the throne as Sultan Shams-ud-Din.   

Shah Mir’s reign was foundational. He replaced the Laukika era with a new Kashmiri era to mark the beginning of his dynasty and appointed Muslim converts to significant administrative posts, thereby institutionalizing the new faith. His successors continued the expansion of the Sultanate, but it was under Sultan Shihab-ud-Din (1354–1373 CE) that Kashmir emerged as a significant regional power. Shihab-ud-Din is often compared to the ancient king Lalitaditya due to his extensive military campaigns into Punjab, Tibet, and Ladakh. He founded the town of Shihab-ud-Din Pura, known today as Shadipur.   

The Era of Religious Zeal: Sultan Sikandar

The late 14th century saw a more rigorous application of Islamic laws under Sultan Sikandar (1389–1413 CE), often referred to as “Butshikan” or the Iconoclast. Influenced by his minister Suhabhatta (a convert named Saifuddin), Sikandar implemented policies that led to the destruction of several ancient temples and the migration of many Kashmiri Pandits. Despite the controversies surrounding his religious policies, his reign was also a period of significant architectural activity, notably the construction of the Jamia Masjid in Srinagar and the Khanqah-e-Moula.   

Sultan Zain-ul-Abidin (Budshah): The Golden Age

No study of medieval Kashmir is complete without an in-depth analysis of Sultan Zain-ul-Abidin (1420–1470 CE), affectionately known as “Budshah” (The Great King). His half-century of rule reversed the exclusionary policies of his predecessor and ushered in a period of unparalleled social, economic, and cultural prosperity.   

Religious Harmony and Social Reforms

Budshah’s most enduring legacy is the establishment of religious tolerance, which became the bedrock of the Kashmiri identity. He invited the exiled Pandits to return, restored their religious freedom, and abolished the Jizya tax. He even established a royal kitchen for Hindu pilgrims at Rainawari, known as Jogi Lanker. His court was a center of Sanskrit learning, where he patronized scholars like Jonaraja and Srivara, who were tasked with continuing the historical record of the Rajatarangini.   

Economic Innovations and Technical Advancement

Budshah was a visionary who understood that political stability required economic self-sufficiency. He sent local craftsmen to Samarkand and other parts of Central Asia to learn new trades, which he then introduced to the valley. These included paper-making, bookbinding, silk weaving, and wood carving.   

The Spiritual Transformation: Sufis and Rishis

The Islamization of Kashmir was a complex process that occurred through the peaceful preaching of Sufi saints and the indigenous Rishi movement rather than through political decree alone.   

The Arrival of Mir Sayyid Ali Hamadani

Mir Sayyid Ali Hamadani, also known as Shah-i-Hamdan, was a Kubrawi Sufi from Persia who visited Kashmir during the reign of Sultan Qutb-ud-Din in 1379 CE. He was accompanied by approximately 700 disciples, many of whom were skilled artisans and craftsmen. This mission was dual-purpose: while they spread the teachings of Islam, they also revolutionized the Kashmiri economy by introducing the crafts of papier-mâché, carpet weaving, and shawl making. The Khanqah-e-Moula stands as a lasting monument to his influence, showcasing the unique wooden architecture of the valley.   

The Rishi Order: The Heart of Kashmiriyat

Parallel to the immigrant Sufi orders, an indigenous movement known as the Rishi Order emerged, founded by Sheikh Noor-ud-din Noorani, also known as Nund Rishi or Sheikh-ul-Alam (1378–1440 CE). Nund Rishi synthesized Islamic principles of monotheism and social justice with the local traditions of asceticism and non-violence inherited from Buddhism and Shaivism.   

His poetry, known as Shruks, was composed in the common Kashmiri language, making spiritual concepts accessible to the rural peasantry. Nund Rishi’s deep respect for the Shaivite mystic poetess Lal Ded (Lalleshwari) highlights the syncretic nature of his philosophy. The Rishis were known for their simple lifestyles, often living as vegetarians and refraining from worldly pleasures to serve the community.   

The Material Culture: Handicrafts and Architecture

Medieval Kashmir’s cultural identity is inseparable from its material traditions. The synthesis of Persian aesthetics with local materials created a distinctive “Kashmiri Style” that gained global recognition.

Papier-mâché: An Architectural and Ornamental Marvel

The craft of papier-mâché evolved from making small pen-cases (Kar-i-Qalamdani) to becoming an integral part of Kashmiri architecture. During the reign of Zain-ul-Abidin, it was used to decorate the ceilings and walls of mosques and palaces. The process is meticulously divided into two phases:   

1. Sakhtasazi: The creation of the base structure using paper pulp that is soaked, molded, and dried.   
2. Naqashi: The intricate painting of floral patterns, cultural motifs, and gold/silver gilding.   

The Madin Sahib Mosque (1444 CE) and the Shah-e-Hamdan Mosque are prime examples where papier-mâché was used for architectural accents, featuring vibrant geometric and floral designs that have survived for centuries.   

Pashmina and Kani Shawls

The textile industry reached its zenith as Kashmiri shawls became a luxury commodity in the courts of the Mughals and eventually in Europe. The raw material, pashm, was sourced from the Changthangi goats of Ladakh and woven into delicate shawls using the Kani technique, which involves using small wooden bobbins to create intricate patterns.   

Wood Carving and Khatamband

The abundant forests of deodar and walnut wood provided the medium for another unique craft. Khatamband is the art of making ceilings by fitting small pieces of wood into each other in complex geometric patterns without the use of nails. This technique is believed to have been introduced by the disciples of Shah-i-Hamdan and was furthered during the Mughal era.   

The Chak Dynasty: 1555–1586 CE

The decline of the Shah Mir dynasty paved the way for the Chaks, a martial tribe that had previously served as powerful ministers. Ghazi Chak founded the dynasty in 1555 CE after overthrowing the weak Sultan Habib Shah.   

The Chak rulers were noted for their fierce independence. They successfully resisted early Mughal attempts at annexation by emperors Babur and Humayun. The most prominent among them, Yusuf Shah Chak (1579–1586 CE), was a great patron of music and literature. He is frequently associated with the poetess Habba Khatoon, and his reign is remembered for its cultural vibrancy despite the constant threat of Mughal invasion. However, internal strife and betrayal eventually led to Yusuf Shah Chak’s surrender to Akbar and the integration of Kashmir into the Mughal Empire in 1586 CE.   

The Mughal Influence: Gardens and Imperial Splendor

Under Mughal rule (1586–1752 CE), Kashmir became the “private garden” of the emperors. Mughal governance brought stability and standardized administrative practices, such as the Subedari system.   

Architectural and Horticultural Legacy

Emperor Jahangir visited the valley 13 times and commissioned many of its most famous gardens, including Shalimar Bagh and Nishat Bagh. These gardens were designed following the Charbagh style, symbolizing the Islamic vision of paradise. Shah Jahan added the Chashme Shahi (Royal Spring) and the gardens at Verinag and Achabal.   

Akbar’s primary architectural contribution was the fortification of Hari Parbat, where he built an outer wall as part of his plan for a new capital city named Nagar-Magar. These imperial projects not only enhanced the beauty of the valley but also provided employment for local artisans, ensuring the continuity of the crafts introduced during the Sultanate era.   

The Arrival of the Holy Relic

A significant religious milestone during the Mughal period was the arrival of the Moi-e-Muqadas (Holy Hair of the Prophet PBUH) in 1699 CE, during the reign of Aurangzeb. Brought by the trader Khawaja Nur-ud-Din Ishbari, the relic’s presence led to the establishment of the Hazratbal Shrine, which became a focal point of spiritual life in the valley.   

Literary and Intellectual Contributions

The medieval period was an era of intense literary activity in both Sanskrit and Persian. The tradition of historical writing established by Kalhana was maintained by successive chroniclers.

1. Jonaraja: Tasked by Budshah to continue the Rajatarangini, he documented the history up to the mid-15th century.   
2. Srivara: A pupil of Jonaraja who wrote the Jaina-Rajatarangini, providing detailed accounts of Budshah’s reign and his successors.   
3. Prajyabhatta and Shuka: Continued the Sanskrit record until the Mughal conquest.   
4. Mulla Ahmad: A prominent scholar in Budshah’s court who translated the Rajatarangini and other Sanskrit works into Persian, facilitating cross-cultural exchange.   

Current Affairs and Heritage Initiatives: 2024–2025

For modern aspirants, understanding the historical developments is insufficient without linking them to current government efforts to preserve this legacy. The years 2024 and 2025 have seen several critical milestones.

Expansion of Geographical Indication (GI) Tags

In a major push to protect Kashmiri craftsmanship from counterfeit products, the Department of Handicrafts and Handloom significantly expanded the GI tag portfolio in 2024 and 2025. As of early 2025, 18 handicrafts hold GI status, with 15 coming from the Kashmir region.   

In March 2025, eight specific crafts were granted GI status:

• Kashmir Namda (Felted rugs)
• Kashmir Gabba (Applique rugs)
• Kashmir Willow Bat
• Kashmir Tweed
• Crewel and Chain Stitch embroidery
• Shikara (Traditional boats)
• Wagguv (Reed mats).   

Additionally, the government has initiated the registration process for six more crafts in late 2025, including Copperware (Kandkari), Silverware, Houseboat craftsmanship, Tapestry, Tilla embroidery, and Aari Stapple embroidery. This initiative ensures that the economic benefits of these medieval crafts reach the genuine local artisans.   

Archaeological Discoveries of 2025

The year 2025 was a landmark year for Kashmiri archaeology. In August 2025, a momentous breakthrough occurred at the Karkoot Nag spring in Anantnag district. During government-led restoration work, laborers unearthed 21 ancient stone idols, including 11 Shivlings and intricately carved sculptures. Preliminary assessments date these relics to the Karkota Dynasty (625–855 CE), but they provide crucial evidence of the continuity of religious sites into the medieval period.   

Similarly, a large 10th-century Shivling was recovered from the Jhelum river near Khanpora, Baramulla, during sand extraction. These discoveries have rekindled interest in preserving the Union Territory’s ancient and medieval past. In October 2025, the Department of Archives, Archaeology and Museums (DAAM) signed an MoU with the University of Kashmir to propel scientific excavations, starting at Zehanpora, Baramulla, in November 2025.   

The Chief Minister’s Heritage Scheme (November 2025)

To ensure that the skills introduced during the Sultanate era do not go extinct, the J&K Government launched the “Chief Minister’s Scheme for Introduction of Heritage Courses” in November 2025. This scheme:   

• Revives seven traditional craft courses (wood carving, papier-mâché, shawl weaving, etc.) across 25 training units.   
• Provides an intake capacity for 500 students with monthly stipends and honorariums for instructors.   
• Aims to transform heritage skills into sustainable sources of income for the youth, bridging the gap between centuries-old tradition and modern opportunity.   

Conclusion: Strategic Insights for Aspirants

The medieval history of Kashmir is characterized by a “Third Way”—a cultural synthesis where the arrival of Islam did not erase the existing heritage but rather transformed it into something unique. For JKSSB aspirants, the key lies in understanding the causal relationships between events: how the Mongol invasion led to a power vacuum, how the Sultanate provided stability through the introduction of crafts, and how the Rishi Order created a religious landscape where harmony was the norm.

The current focus on GI tagging and heritage restoration in 2025 reflects a modern commitment to this medieval legacy. Aspirants should focus on:

1. The specific dates of dynastic changes (1320, 1339, 1420, 1555, 1586).
2. The names and locations of founded towns (Shadipur, Zainakoot, Nagar-Magar).
3. The technical terminology of crafts (Sakhtasazi, Khatamband, Kandkari).
4. Current affairs milestones (the 2025 archaeological finds and the CM’s Heritage Scheme).

By mastering these details within the narrative of cultural evolution, candidates can ensure high accuracy in their examination performance while gaining a deeper appreciation for the complex beauty of Kashmir’s medieval history.

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Sahil Digra

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