Advent of Islam in Jammu and Kashmir

The historical transition of Jammu and Kashmir from an ancient center of Shaivism and Buddhism to a vibrant hub of Islamic civilization represents one of the most significant chapters in the history of the Indian subcontinent. For candidates preparing for the Jammu and Kashmir Services Selection Board (JKSSB) examinations, particularly those appearing for the Sub-Inspector, Junior Assistant, Patwari, and Female Supervisor posts, a nuanced understanding of this period is essential. The JKSSB syllabus specifically emphasizes General Knowledge with special reference to the history and culture of the J&K Union Territory. The advent of Islam was not merely a change in the religious demographic but a total transformation of the region’s administrative, economic, and linguistic landscape, leading to the birth of “Kashmiriyat”—the unique syncretic culture of the valley.   

The Early Islamic Contacts and Frontier Dynamics (8th–12th Century)

The arrival of Islam in the Kashmir Valley was a protracted historical process rather than a singular event. While the formal establishment of a Muslim Sultanate occurred in the 14th century, interactions with the Islamic world began as early as the 8th century during the Umayyad Caliphate. Following the Arab conquest of Sindh in 711-713 CE under Muhammad bin Qasim, the Arab forces reached the frontiers of Kashmir, specifically a region called “Panj Nahiyat,” which served as a geographic meeting point of the rivers Jhelum, Chenab, Sutlej, and Beas before they merged with the Indus. Although Muhammad bin Qasim did not advance into the valley due to his recall to Arabia, these frontier contacts initiated a long-standing relationship between the Kashmiri rulers and the emerging Islamic powers in the west.   

During the reign of Raja Chandrapida (713–720 CE), historical records indicate that even as the state sought assistance from the Chinese Tang dynasty to neutralize Arab threats, individual Muslims began to integrate into the local society. An Arab commander named Mohammad Alafi and his son Jaisia, seeking refuge after political developments in Sindh, were granted a town known as Shakalbar by the Kashmiri king. This early presence of Muslims in the military and administration highlights the hospitable nature of ancient Kashmiri kings towards foreign talent, a trend that continued for centuries. By the 11th century, even before the throne was held by a Muslim, Muslim singers known as “mleccha gayanah” were recorded as participating in courtly activities, and Muslim soldiers were employed as a specialized wing in the Kashmiri army.   

The failed expeditions of Mahmud of Ghazni in 1014 and 1021 CE further illustrate the strategic importance of the region’s geography. Mahmud’s forces attempted to enter Kashmir via the Tossamaidan pass but were thwarted by the impregnable Loharkot Fort in modern-day Poonch and the severe weather conditions of the valley. However, these interactions led to the gradual conversion of populations in the southern and western periphery, creating a corridor of Islamic influence that eventually seeped into the valley through traders, travelers, and artisans.   

The Collapse of the Lohara Dynasty and the Fourteenth Century Crisis

The transition to Islamic rule was facilitated by the systemic decline of the Hindu Lohara and Deva dynasties. By the early 14th century, Kashmir was plagued by internal administrative decay, succession wars among the nobility, and devastating foreign incursions. The final blow to the old order came in 1320 CE when a Mongol commander named Zulchu (also known as Dalucha) invaded the valley with a large army, leading to widespread destruction. The weak ruler of the time, Raja Sahadeva, fled the country, leaving a power vacuum that was filled by three key figures: Rinchen (a Buddhist prince from Tibet), Shah Mir (a Muslim commander from Swat/Hazara), and Lankar Chak (a Dardic leader).   

Rinchen, who took control of the valley after Zulchu’s departure, sought to establish a stable social and religious identity for his reign. Finding himself at odds with the local Brahmanical hierarchy over his social status, Rinchen turned toward the teachings of a visiting Suhrawardi Sufi saint, Hazrat Bulbul Shah (Abdur Rehman). Bulbul Shah’s message of equality and social justice resonated with the displaced and disillusioned population, leading to the conversion of Rinchen in 1320-1325 CE. Taking the name Sultan Sadruddin, Rinchen became the first Muslim ruler of Kashmir, commissioning the first mosque and hospice (Khanqah) in Srinagar, known as “Bulbul Lankar”. His reign marked the official entry of Islam into the state administration, although it was brief, lasting only until 1327 CE.   

The Shah Mir Dynasty: Foundations of the Kashmiri Sultanate (1339–1561)

The formal establishment of a lasting Muslim dynasty was the work of Shah Mir, who ascended the throne in 1339 CE under the title Sultan Shams-ud-Din. Shah Mir is regarded by historians as the real founder of the Sultanate in Kashmir, providing the political stability that would allow Islamic culture to flourish for over two centuries. His administration was noted for its pragmatism and its ability to win the trust of a majority-Hindu population.   

Sultan Shams-ud-Din (1339–1342)

Upon taking power, Sultan Shams-ud-Din implemented several critical reforms that are frequently featured in JKSSB previous year questions. He abolished arbitrary taxes and oppressive methods of revenue extraction that had been practiced by the late Lohara kings. One of his most significant administrative achievements was fixing the land revenue at 1/6 of the total produce, a move that provided immense relief to the agrarian community. He also recruited the Chaks, a warlike people from Dardistan, into the state army, appointing Lanka Chak as his commander-in-chief. His policy of religious tolerance was evident in his decision to maintain marriage alliances with Hindu families and to allow the traditional administrative classes (Pandits) to remain in their roles, thus ensuring bureaucratic continuity.   

Sultan Shahab-ud-Din (1354–1373)

Known as the “Lalitaditya of Medieval Kashmir,” Sultan Shahab-ud-Din was a formidable conqueror who significantly expanded the geographical boundaries of the Kashmiri Sultanate. His military campaigns took him as far as Kabul in the west, Ghazni, and Kandahar. In the south, he crossed the Sutlej and met the ruler of Nagarkote, and even forced the Delhi Sultan Firoz Shah Tughlaq to surrender territories between Sirhind and Kashmir. Beyond his military exploits, he founded the town of Shahabuddinpora (now known as Shadipura) and was noted for his religious impartiality, famously refusing to melt down Hindu idols for coinage during times of financial stress.   

Sultan Sikander (1389–1413)

The reign of Sultan Sikander marked a shift toward a more orthodox Islamic policy, largely influenced by the arrival of Mir Muhammad Hamadani, the son of the great saint Mir Sayyid Ali Hamadani. Sikander is often remembered by the title “Butshikhan” (Iconoclast) due to his zeal for destroying ancient temples and idols. Under his rule, the state implemented Sharia law strictly, and his Prime Minister, a neo-Brahman convert named Malik Suha Bhatt, was instrumental in enforcing these policies. Despite the religious controversy, Sikander’s era was a period of architectural flourishing. He commissioned the iconic Jamia Masjid of Srinagar in 1402 CE and the Khanqah-e-Moula in 1395 CE, both of which are cornerstone landmarks for aspirants to memorize.   

Sultan Zain-ul-Abidin “Budshah” (1420–1470)

Perhaps the most celebrated ruler in the history of Jammu and Kashmir, Sultan Zain-ul-Abidin is affectionately known as “Budshah” (The Great King). Reversing the rigorous policies of his father, Sikander, Budshah ushered in a “Golden Age” of cultural harmony and economic prosperity. For aspirants, Budshah’s contributions are a high-yield topic:   

• Religious Policy: He abolished the Jizya tax on non-Muslims, prohibited cow slaughter, and invited the Kashmiri Pandits who had fled during his father’s reign to return and resume their ancestral lands and roles.   
• Art and Industry: He is credited with introducing several industries that still define Kashmir’s economy today, including carpet weaving, shawl making, papier-mâché, silk rearing, and wood carving. He brought master craftsmen from Samarkand and Bukhara to train the local population.   
• Infrastructure and Literature: He built the first wooden bridge in Srinagar, the Zainakadal, and established the translation department where Sanskrit epics like the Mahabharata and the Rajatarangini were translated into Persian.   
• Geography: He created two artificial islands, “Rupalank” and “Sonalank,” in the Dal Lake, which served as royal retreats.   

The Role of Sufi Saints in the Spread of Islam

The “Islamization” of Kashmir was fundamentally a bottom-up social movement driven by Sufi saints and scholars rather than a top-down political imposition. These mystics provided a spiritual alternative to the rigid caste hierarchies of the time, emphasizing universal brotherhood, love, and social equality.   

The Suhrawardi Silsilah

The Suhrawardi order was the first to take root in Kashmir, beginning with Hazrat Bulbul Shah, who won the first royal conversion. Later, the order was popularized by Sheikh Hamza Makhdoom, also known as “Mahbub-ul-Alam” (Beloved of the World). His shrine on the Hari Parbat hill is one of the most revered sites in Srinagar. The Suhrawardis were unique in their willingness to engage with the political elite to influence state policy toward social justice.   

The Kubrawi Silsilah and Shah-e-Hamdan

The arrival of Mir Sayyid Ali Hamadani (Shah-e-Hamdan) in the 1370s and 1380s CE was the most transformative spiritual event for the region. Accompanied by 700 followers (Sadaats), he didn’t just preach theology; he revolutionized the economy. His followers were multidisciplinary experts who introduced the Persian language and Central Asian crafts, turning the valley into a “Little Iran” (Iran-e-Sagheer). For the JKSSB aspirant, it is vital to remember his titles: “Amir-i-Kabir” (The Great Commander) and “Ali Sani” (The Second Ali).   

The Rishi Order: The Indigenous Synthesis

Unique to Jammu and Kashmir is the “Rishi Order,” a local Sufi tradition that blended Islamic principles with the ancient ascetic practices of the region. Its founder, Sheikh Noor-ud-Din Wali (also known as Nund Rishi or Alamdar-e-Kashmir), is the patron saint of the valley. Born in 1377 CE in Kulgam, his poetry (Shruks) in the Kashmiri vernacular made the complex truths of the Quran accessible to the illiterate masses. Nund Rishi’s message was one of environmental conservation (“Ann Poshi Teli Yeli Wan Poshi”—Food will last as long as forests survive) and communal harmony, frequently citing that Hindus and Muslims were “partners” born of the same parents. His shrine is located at Charar-i-Sharief in Budgam.   

Islamic Landmarks and Architecture for Competitive Exams

Architecture in Kashmir during the Islamic era developed a unique Indo-Saracenic character, utilizing local materials like cedar (deodar) wood and stone while incorporating Persian motifs. Aspirants should focus on the following sites as they are frequently part of the “Tourist Destinations” and “History” sections of the syllabus.   

Jamia Masjid, Srinagar

Constructed in 1402 CE by Sultan Sikander at the behest of Mir Muhammad Hamadani, this is the largest mosque in the Union Territory. Its architecture is notable for 378 massive wooden pillars and a peaceful central courtyard, following the “Chahar Bagh” layout.   

Khanqah-e-Moula

Situated on the banks of the Jhelum, this was the first mosque built in Srinagar (1395 CE). It is a wooden structure famous for its intricate papier-mâché work and carvings, serving as a monument to the influence of Shah-e-Hamdan.   

Hazratbal Shrine

Located on the northern bank of Dal Lake, it is the only domed mosque in Srinagar. It houses the “Moi-e-Muqaddas”—a sacred hair of the Prophet Muhammad. The relic was brought to Kashmir in 1699 CE during the reign of Aurangzeb and was initially kept at the Naqshband Sahib shrine before being moved to Sadiqabad (Hazratbal).   

Pathar Masjid

A departure from the typical wooden architecture, this mosque was built in 1623 CE by the Mughal Empress Noor Jahan. It is made of grey limestone and is located on the left bank of the Jhelum.   

Sources of History: The Rajatarangini and Beyond

JKSSB exams often test candidates on the historiography of the region. Understanding the primary sources of this period is crucial for a complete preparation.   

• Kalhana’s Rajatarangini (1148–1150 CE): The primary source for ancient Kashmir.
• Jonaraja’s Continuation: Jonaraja, a court historian for Sultan Zain-ul-Abidin, continued the Rajatarangini up to 1459 CE, documenting the transition to Islamic rule and the early Shah Mir dynasty.   
• Srivara’s Jaina-Rajatarangini: A disciple of Jonaraja, he documented the history from 1459 to 1486 CE.   
• Suka’s Chaturtha Rajatarangini: Extended the work up to the arrival of the Mughal emperor Akbar.   
• Tarikh-i-Hassan: Peer Ghulam Hasan Khuihami (1832-1898) wrote this three-volume work, which is a vital source for the later Sultanate period.   

Current Affairs: Archaeological Discoveries and Conservation (2024–2025)

In line with the JKSSB’s focus on “Current events of national and regional importance,” aspirants must stay updated on recent developments in heritage management.   

Breakthrough in Baramulla (2025)

In late 2025, archaeologists from the University of Kashmir and the J&K Department of Archives, Archaeology and Museums (DAAM) discovered a massive Kushan-era Buddhist complex in Zehanpora, Baramulla. While this site predates the advent of Islam, it is historically linked because it identifies the ancient routes connecting Kashmir with Central Asia—the very routes later utilized by the Sufis and Shah Mir rulers to bring Islam and its associated crafts to the valley.   

Heritage Revival Schemes

Under the leadership of the current administration, the “UT-level scheme for the revival, restoration, preservation, and maintenance of architecture and heritage” has identified over 400 projects. Chief Minister Omar Abdullah recently informed the Legislative Assembly that 45 projects are currently underway, including the conservation of the Peer Mitha shrine in Jammu and the Shahi Masjid in Nowshera, Rajouri.   

• SPS Museum: The historic Shri Pratap Singh (SPS) Museum in Srinagar is undergoing a ₹19.5 crore renovation to preserve rare Islamic manuscripts and ancient artifacts.   
• Digital Archives: Nearly 70% of the Union Territory’s archival records have been digitized as of 2025, ensuring that the history of the Islamic era is accessible to researchers worldwide.   
• Martand Temple and Shrines: Restoration projects totaling over ₹4 crore have been sanctioned for religious sites including the Baba Naseeb-ud-Din Gazi shrine.   

Administrative Impact: The Persianization and Civil Service Relevance

The advent of Islam brought a change in the official language of the state from Sanskrit to Persian, which remained the administrative language of Kashmir through the Mughal, Afghan, and Sikh periods until the Dogra era. This transition shaped the “Dardic” and Indo-Aryan ethno-linguistic identity of the Kashmiri people, which aspirants should note as part of the cultural geography section.   

The JKSSB syllabus for several posts includes the “J&K Reorganisation Act, 2019” and “J&K Panchayat Raj Act, 1989”. While these are modern administrative topics, the roots of J&K’s specific land revenue and village administration can be traced back to Sultan Shams-ud-Din’s 1/6 produce rule and Sultan Zain-ul-Abidin’s localized governance models. Understanding the historical context allows a candidate to see the continuity of administrative challenges in the region.   

Exam Preparation Corner: Mock Test Analysis

Based on the previous year question trends, candidates should be able to answer the following:

• Who initiated the ‘Darbar Move’ practice? While a Dogra-era question (Ranbir Singh/Pratap Singh), it highlights the shifting administrative capitals, a concept that started with Sultanate-era seasonal movement.   
• Which treaty marked the formal establishment of the princely state of J&K? Treaty of Amritsar (1846), which followed the five centuries of Muslim rule analyzed here.   
• What is the significance of “Satisar”? As per the Nilamata-purana, the valley was originally a lake; the Islamic arrival is often narrated against this ancient mythological backdrop.   
• Which National Park is famous for Hangul conservation? Dachigam, located near the reservoirs built by later rulers.   

Conclusion: The Enduring Spirit of Kashmiriyat

The advent of Islam in Jammu and Kashmir was not a rupture but a synthesis. It was a period where Persian aesthetics met Kashmiri architecture, where Sufi mysticism met Rishi asceticism, and where the rule of the Sultans laid the foundations for the modern socio-economic fabric of the state. For JKSSB aspirants, this history is more than a set of facts—it is the story of how Jammu and Kashmir became a beacon of pluralism. By focusing on the administrative reforms of Shah Mir, the cultural renaissance under Budshah, and the spiritual egalitarianism of the Rishis, candidates can master this portion of the syllabus while gaining a deeper appreciation for the Union Territory they aspire to serve.  

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Sahil Digra

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