Effective stress is a cornerstone concept in soil mechanics. Introduced by Karl Terzaghi, it provides the foundation for understanding how soil behaves under load, especially when water is present in the voids. For JKSSB and other civil engineering exams, numerical problems, definitions, and conceptual MCQs from this topic are frequently asked.
🔍 What Is Stress in Soil?
Soil, being a three-phase porous material, is made up of:
- Solids: The mineral particles of soil
- Water: Filling the voids, especially below the water table
- Air: Occupying the remaining void space in unsaturated soils
When an external load or self-weight acts on the ground, this load is shared between the soil skeleton and the fluid within its pores:
- Soil grains (solids) bear the structural load
- Pore water resists pressure but does not resist shear
👉 Hence, in soil mechanics, the critical question becomes: “Which component of the soil truly bears the effective load and controls strength and deformation?”
This is where the concept of effective stress becomes essential — to distinguish the actual stress carried by the soil structure from the pressure exerted by water inside the pores.
🧪 Types of Stress in Soil
| Type of Stress | Symbol | Description |
|---|---|---|
| Total Stress | σ\sigma | Total load per unit area (includes water + solids) |
| Pore Water Pressure | uu | Pressure from water within the soil voids |
| Effective Stress | σ′\sigma’ | Stress truly borne by soil skeleton |
📘 Terzaghi’s Effective Stress Principle
Terzaghi’s Equation:
σ′=σ−u\boxed{ \sigma’ = \sigma – u }
Where:
- σ′\sigma’ = Effective stress (kN/m²)
- σ\sigma = Total stress (kN/m²)
- uu = Pore water pressure (kN/m²)
Interpretation:
👉 Total stress includes both the load on the soil grains and the pressure carried by water.
👉 Effective stress is the portion of stress that affects soil behavior — like shear strength, compression, and settlement.
📖 Derivation of Terzaghi’s Effective Stress Formula (Conceptual)
Imagine a small soil element at depth zz:
- Total vertical force = weight of soil above = σ⋅A\sigma \cdot A
- Water in the pores pushes equally in all directions (isotropic), so it doesn’t resist shear — only the solid grains do.
- Hence, load carried by soil skeleton = total force – force carried by water
⇒σ′=σ−u\Rightarrow \sigma’ = \sigma – u
🌊 How Water Affects Soil Strength
When Water Table Rises:
- Pore pressure (u) increases
- Effective stress (σ′\sigma’) decreases
- Soil loses strength, may become unstable
When Water Table Falls:
- Pore pressure decreases
- Effective stress increases
- Soil becomes stronger and more stable
📌 Real-Life Example:
During monsoon, when water tables rise, landslides often occur in hill regions due to reduced effective stress.
📀 Numerical Example (JKSSB-Style)
Q: A saturated soil layer is 6 m deep. Unit weight = 20 kN/m³. Water table is at surface. What is the effective stress at 6 m depth?
🧱 Effective Stress in Different Soil Conditions
1. Dry Soil (Above Water Table):
- No water in pores
2. Saturated Soil (Below Water Table):
- Water fully fills pores
3. Capillary Zone (Above Water Table):
- Water rises due to surface tension
- Pore water pressure becomes negative
- Effective stress increases
📌 Important for foundation uplift and shrink-swell behavior of clays.
📊 Stress Distribution Table
| Depth | Soil Type | Total Stress (σ\sigma) | Pore Pressure (uu) | Effective Stress (σ′\sigma’) |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| 0–2m | Dry | 36 kN/m² | 0 | 36 kN/m² |
| 2–5m | Saturated | 66 kN/m² | 29.43 kN/m² | 36.57 kN/m² |
| 5–8m | Fully Saturated | 96 kN/m² | 58.86 kN/m² | 37.14 kN/m² |
📉 Effective Stress Controls Key Soil Behaviors
💬 Common Misconceptions
| Misconception | Correction |
|---|---|
| Pore water pressure increases strength | ❌ It reduces effective stress and strength |
| Total stress is always enough to analyze | ❌ Only effective stress governs soil behavior |
| Air has significant effect on σ′\sigma’ | ❌ Air pressure is usually negligible in open systems |
🧠 Memory Tricks for JKSSB
TRICK 1:
“Total minus water gives you the real stress.“
TRICK 2:
“Effective stress is what holds the particles together. Water just floats between.“
🔍 Effective Stress and Seepage
When water flows through soil (e.g., in dams), seepage forces act in addition to gravity and may:
- Reduce effective stress → cause piping/failure
- Reverse effective stress (e.g., in quicksand)
📌 Formula with seepage:
🏗️ Field Applications
| Engineering Problem | Why Effective Stress Matters |
|---|---|
| Building Settlement | Lower σ′\sigma’ → More consolidation |
| Embankment Design | Shear failure governed by σ′\sigma’ |
| Retaining Wall Design | Active/passive pressures use σ′\sigma’ in analysis |
| Pile Foundations | Load transfer and end bearing depend on σ′\sigma’ |
| Earth Dams | σ′\sigma’ affects stability under seepage or rainfall |
📓 Related Topics to Study
- Permeability and Flow Net
- Consolidation Theory
- Mohr-Coulomb Strength Theory
- Boussinesq Stress Distribution
- Capillarity and Soil Suction
✅ Conclusion
Understanding Effective Stress is not only key for soil mechanics but also for designing safe and economical structures in civil engineering. In exams like JKSSB JE Civil, focus on:
- Numericals involving σ\sigma, uu, and σ′\sigma’
- Conceptual questions involving capillary action and water table movement
- Application-based MCQs
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